Sheep are misunderstood animals, often described as easily frightened, dumb animals. That’s not an accurate description, but it is easy to categorize and label both animals and people based on outward appearances or misinformation. Those who have taken the time to research sheep and their behaviors tell us that sheep have excellent memories. To humans, they may all look fairly similar, but sheep can recognize more than fifty distinct sheep faces and remember them for up to two years.^[1] They’re also able to problem-solve. Farmers have observed sheep overcoming cattle guards designed to contain them in a specific area or keep them from devouring a garden. Many sheep have learned to lie down on their sides and backs and roll all the way over the metal rails of a cattle guard in order to get to the food they crave in a seemingly protected garden.^[2]

If you’ve ever observed sheep in a field, you might think they keep their heads down and eat, oblivious to the other sheep surrounding them. Actually, sheep are also very social animals and need to see other sheep when they are grazing in a pasture. Maintaining visual contact reduces their stress levels, and they will become highly agitated if they are separated from the other sheep in their flock. You’re probably aware that sheep follow a shepherd, unlike cattle that have to be driven. Their following instinct is strong because of their need to stay together with other sheep in the flock. It is something they learn from the time they are born. When sheep become frightened, they will band even closer together for safety. This banding together is their only real protection from danger, except for a watchful shepherd or protective sheepdog. When they close ranks and gather into a tight group, it is harder for a wolf or other predator to harm them. As you can imagine, it would be much more difficult to pick a sheep out of a group than it would be to go after a lone stray.^[3]

The sheep’s strong flocking instinct that provides protection from danger can also lead to disaster. The desire for community means that when one sheep moves, the rest of the herd will follow, even if it is a bad idea. In 2005, in the countryside in Turkey, one lone sheep decided to jump off a cliff, and the entire flock of approximately 1,500 followed. All the shepherds could do was watch. Nearly 450 sheep died as a result of that one sheep’s actions. Those who survived did so only because they were cushioned by the bodies of the sheep who jumped first.^[4] This isn’t an isolated incident, and if you heard a similar account, it is understandable that you might shake your head and think about the stupidity of sheep. But knowing what you now know about sheep’s intelligence and social nature, your perspective on such a tragedy would probably be different. You might wonder what made the first sheep jump, but you wouldn’t assume that the rest of the flock did so out of ignorance.

Humans are also intelligent social animals with individual characteristics that make them distinguishable from every other human. Even though everyone is unique, all persons share at least one commonality: Everyone is created in the image of God. Genesis 1:27 tells us that “God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.” Galatians 3:28 reminds us, “There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” All people from every corner of the world and economic status have worth and value, but no one is exactly the same as anyone else. While every person is created in God’s image with the capacity to know God personally, each individual possesses different abilities, gifts, personalities, and strengths. Even identical twins born from the same fertilized egg, who share the same DNA, are slightly different in appearance and aren’t always the same in height, physical makeup, or resistance to illness and disease. Some differences between twins are related to lifestyle choices, but scientists are also learning that DNA sequences change slightly over time after birth, contributing to the twins’ distinctness.^[5] Even when people seem the same as others, there are always differences.

When observing a group of people in a public setting, it is easy to notice both their differences and their commonalities. If you hang out at a coffee shop, you’ll see people of all shapes, sizes, and dispositions ordering their brews in as many different varieties as their hair colors. Yet a coffee shop crowd in the US would be easily distinguishable from the customers in a coffee shop in Cuba, not because of their outward appearances, but by how they want their coffee prepared. The general Cuban preference is for dark, strong, concentrated coffee, and never decaffeinated. Both groups are coffee drinkers, but their culture has shaped their preference for how it is served. While this might seem like a minor, inconsequential issue, it points to a much more significant principle that must be considered when developing a curriculum. The Christian educator is teaching people, not lessons, and all people are shaped by culture. Cultural preferences impact not only beverage choices but, more significantly, how people interact, grow, learn, and respond.

Culture and Curriculum

Everyone is a unique creation, but groups within specific cultural settings have more in common with one another than with those in other cultural groups. That may seem like common sense if you only associate culture with a specific ethnicity, such as African, American, Asian, European, or Latin. However, that understanding of a cultural group is both too broad and too narrow to be useful in curricular planning. There are currently fifty-four countries in Africa alone, so assuming they all share the same cultural views would be naive at best. The word culture has at least a hundred meanings, but a simple way to understand it is as one’s total socially defined life context. Family structure, sports teams, denominations, and schools are some examples of contexts that are socially defined. While it isn’t generally contemplated or recognized in day-to-day living, everything a person does occurs within a cultural context that is powerful in its ability to shape attitudes, thoughts, behaviors, and values.

Layers and levels of culture impact standards of appropriateness for all aspects of life. Where one is located geographically matters, from nation, region, state, city, and neighborhood. For example, while both locations are in the state of Pennsylvania, urban life in Philadelphia is significantly different from life in Lancaster. Families, schools, businesses, and individual churches reflect varying cultural expectations even within a specific neighborhood. One of the largest multisite, nondenominational Evangelical churches in the United States is in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and their church culture is quite different from the many Amish churches that meet in homes in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.

Curricular activities in which children engage in solving real-life problems are often different in different regions, communities, and neighborhoods where children live. Among the influences on curricular activities are geography and natural resources, industry, history, ancestry and culture, wealth or income level, social status, race, and communities’ attitudes and folkways. Some of the influences are characteristic of large regions. Others are simple ways of living that may be found in one city or county and not in another.^[6]

Generations and age groups are additional cultural subgroups coexisting within the same family or church, reflecting diverse perspectives on cultural categories such as dress, music, language, artistic expression, entertainment, and interpersonal interactions. These are some of the categories representing the unique ways groups define themselves and the distinctive characteristics of a specific group’s way of life.

The introduction to this book noted that a discipleship curriculum is like a racecourse intentionally designed to lead students on the path to spiritual maturity. While a plan attempts to organize the journey in a systematic way, the travelers (students) won’t all have the same experience or realize the same outcomes. One of the main reasons this is true is because culture has shaped the ways in which they will encounter and interpret the preconstructed road map. These interpretations lead to unplanned learning and become part of the curriculum.

Cross-Cultural Ministry

Our goal is to communicate the gospel of Jesus Christ effectively within the context of a specific culture. To create a curriculum plan that will maximize the potential for the spiritual growth of a particular target audience, it is imperative to invest time in studying the surrounding culture of that specific group of people. Researching the cultural context to determine how best to frame a curriculum plan might come across as too scientific or sterile, but that is not the intent, nor would it be an accurate understanding. Stereotyping can lead to prejudging others’ abilities, interests, or character based on what we’ve previously experienced, heard, or observed. It would be wrong to assume that everyone within a particular context is the same as the other people in that context. However, attempting to understand and generalize the characteristics of a particular group of people is a helpful means of understanding how to teach and disciple them toward spiritual maturity most effectively. James Plueddemann, a well-respected leader in teaching and cross-cultural ministry, suggests that effective teachers must not only master the content they are teaching but also “appreciate the cultural values, needs, and context” of the learners and be able to help learners make connections between their context and the content.^[7]

Where a curriculum takes place matters. Christians collectively form the Church, the bride of Christ, and are shaped and formed in communion with other believers, most often those living and worshipping in their communities. The local surroundings—the homes, schools, places of employment, and local policies and political systems—shape those who live there. They impact educational goals and abilities, attitudes toward authority, the environment, community leadership, future outlook and aspirations, and family and personal values. The content and structure of a curriculum plan will lead toward spiritual growth in proportion to how much consideration is given to the culture in which the target audience lives and works.

Earlier in this chapter, I noted the inadequacy of associating culture only with ethnicity. While it is true that culture is much more complex than one’s nationality or ancestral heritage, there are important, though sometimes subtle, contrasts between people groups that must be considered for effective discipleship. When I was teaching in China, my students listened without asking questions and were hesitant to engage in my attempts at discussion. Where I teach in Indiana, when a class is over, many of my Midwestern college students hang around for a conversation, and others are eager to leave the classroom and get on with their lives. The first time I taught a seminary class in California with mostly Korean students, I was shocked and pleasantly surprised when the class broke out in applause when the class ended. In a seminary class in Romania, my students questioned everything I tried to teach them, and some days, I left feeling like a failure. When I first taught in Cuba, I was astonished to discover that my students were working late into the evenings studying and working on their assignments. Nothing was ever submitted late. In some countries where I’ve taught, many of the students have emailed their assignments nine months to a year past the deadlines, hoping to have them accepted. I have encountered situations where entire groups of students worked together and submitted the same work, refusing to understand how that constituted plagiarism. Each of these experiences exemplifies how students have been enculturated as learners within a particular context. They reflect culturally normative views on the role of both teacher and student as well as values about time and integrity.

Several years ago, I completed a research project in which I surveyed five distinct groups of teenagers from three countries on issues that were considered common concerns for all young people. The students were Caucasian American, Asian American, Cuban, German, and Russian German. I was interested in whether their survey responses would be similar across groups, indicating a strong affiliation with global youth culture, or whether the results would indicate significant differences between the groups, suggesting that their national and ethnic cultural identities would be more influential. There were marked differences between the groups on many of the survey items. For instance, when faced with problems, Cuban students overwhelmingly indicated they would seek God’s help first, but that was the lowest-ranking response for Caucasian American students, who said their first source of help would be their friends. Asian American students favored their parents when seeking help with a problem, with Russian German students ranking parents lower on their list of preferences than any other group in the study. The greatest area of consensus was that none of the groups identified pastors or youth ministers as a preferred source of help with their problems. In fact, three of the five cultural groups ranked them as their last choice. Research such as this could be considered useless trivia unless time is taken to understand why various student groups responded the way they did to each question in the survey. It could be invaluable to those designing a curriculum plan for any one of these student groups.

Cultural studies are helpful in developing a curriculum’s content as well as the ways in which that content will be taught. They can offer insights into what needs the most emphasis, where teaching should take place, preferred leadership structures, effective teaching methods, and even illustrations that would be most impactful for learning. Cross-cultural missionaries are most successful when they take time to learn from and interact with those they will be serving through listening, observing, and questioning. In a very real sense, all discipleship strategies involve cross-cultural ministry. Adults facilitate discipleship groups for students, single people may teach those who are married or divorced, and individuals who have grown up in a community often lead others who have moved into the area from another city, state, or country. In each instance, teachers must cross cultures as they engage in discipleship ministry.

Living within a community allows cross-cultural missionaries to observe life firsthand and gain a richer and more accurate understanding of those in another environment, acquiring invaluable insights into less tangible aspects of a particular culture known as the ethos. The type of information collected to understand a group’s ethos is often referred to as psychographics. It is the same type of information that marketers often gather when trying to understand consumer groups. The focus is on understanding the shared values, assumptions, lifestyles, and personality traits of a particular group in order to reach them most effectively. It isn’t the type of information you can easily count and measure, but it requires spending time in observation and communication. In sociology and related fields of study, this type of cultural study is often referred to as ethnography, and it typically involves a study of a year or more in a particular context. These same ethnographic principles can be used when developing a curriculum plan for a local ministry, but it requires intentional observation of the culture or community.

Biblical Examples

Christ’s sacrifice was necessary for our salvation, and so was his humanity. The Heidelberg Catechism includes this significant truth, found in question 16: “Q: Why must he be a true and righteous man? A: He must be a true man because the justice of God requires that the same human nature which has sinned should pay for sin. He must be a righteous man because one who himself is a sinner cannot pay for others.”^[8] The incarnation was an act of grace, making salvation possible, and also an act of cross-cultural ministry. God, in the person of Jesus Christ, crossed the boundaries between heaven and earth, entering the world as a helpless baby and learning the language and customs of his cultural surroundings.

Jesus honored others’ cultures in his teaching and ministry. His parables and teaching methods show his desire to communicate spiritual truths in a language that would resonate with his audience. He crossed cultural barriers to share hope and truth. In John 4, we read about Jesus’s trip from Judaea to Galilee. He traveled through Samaria, an uncommon practice for Jews who looked down on the Samaritans for their cultural and religious practices. Samaritans were part Jew and part Gentile, practicing elements of Judaism but also worshipping pagan gods. On his trip, Jesus encountered a woman drawing water from a well during the hottest part of the day, when most people would have been resting. This Samaritan woman had been married five times and was currently living with another man who wasn’t her husband, so she probably went for water at this time to avoid having to face the other women who would have looked down on her immorality. When Jesus spoke with her, he intentionally crossed various cultural barriers, including ethnicity, religion, social class, and gender. This encounter with the woman at the well wasn’t just a passing conversation but Jesus’s longest personal interaction recorded in John.

Paul understood the importance of culture and that not all differences matter regarding the truth of the gospel:

Do not cause anyone to stumble, whether Jews, Greeks or the church of God—even as I try to please everyone in every way. For I am not seeking my own good but the good of many, so that they may be saved.

1 Corinthians 10:32–33, NIV

He tailored his ministry and teaching to those he was trying to reach, which required an understanding of cultural differences. Here are two examples:

To the Jews I became like a Jew, to win the Jews. To those under the law I became like one under the law (though I myself am not under the law), so as to win those under the law. To those not having the law I became like one not having the law (though I am not free from God’s law but am under Christ’s law), so as to win those not having the law. To the weak I became weak, to win the weak. I have become all things to all people so that by all possible means I might save some.

1 Corinthians 9:20–22, NIV

Now about food sacrificed to idols: We know that “We all possess knowledge.” But knowledge puffs up while love builds up. Those who think they know something do not yet know as they ought to know. But whoever loves God is known by God.

So then, about eating food sacrificed to idols: We know that “An idol is nothing at all in the world” and that “There is no God but one.” For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many “gods” and many “lords”), yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.

But not everyone possesses this knowledge. Some people are still so accustomed to idols that when they eat sacrificial food they think of it as having been sacrificed to a god, and since their conscience is weak, it is defiled. But food does not bring us near to God; we are no worse if we do not eat, and no better if we do.

Be careful, however, that the exercise of your rights does not become a stumbling block to the weak. For if someone with a weak conscience sees you, with all your knowledge, eating in an idol’s temple, won’t that person be emboldened to eat what is sacrificed to idols? So this weak brother or sister, for whom Christ died, is destroyed by your knowledge. When you sin against them in this way and wound their weak conscience, you sin against Christ. Therefore, if what I eat causes my brother or sister to fall into sin, I will never eat meat again, so that I will not cause them to fall.

1 Corinthians 8:1–13, NIV

Using Demographics

Psychographic cultural information most effectively derived from ethnographic research is one means of understanding the context of where a discipleship curriculum will be implemented. It is the most time-consuming approach to gaining the insights needed for effective curriculum planning, but it isn’t the only strategy necessary. It is also important to gather demographic data about a target audience. Demographics refers to quantitative data, the numbers and percentages most often found in charts, graphs, or tables. Technology makes this much easier to attain than in previous decades. Demographic data includes information about such things as age distributions, marital status, income, gender, educational levels, religious preferences, housing situations, crime levels, and occupations. Depending on where you live, you can search a variety of government and nonprofit research sites to gather this data. There are databases that contain collections of worldwide data, such as Statista (https://www.statista.com/), Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/), World Health Organization (https://www.who.int/), and WorldData (https://www.worlddata.info/).

The most useful and detailed information can be found on sites that are country or region specific. Within the United States, searching data by zip code can be the most efficient. A number of databases allow this type of search. Among some of the most useful are the US Census Bureau (https://www.census.gov/data.html), City-Data (https://www.city-data.com/), Homefacts (https://www.homefacts.com/), and Pew Research Center (https://www.pewresearch.org/data-sources-for-demographic-research/). Many states, cities, or municipalities host their own websites or have public offices that may have the most up-to-date information, as national sites often rely on government census data or other studies that aren’t conducted annually.

Regardless of where or how demographic data is collected, it is only useful to the extent that it is interpreted the same way as psychographic information. A list of facts and numbers is meaningless unless effort is given to how the data has impacted, does impact, or should impact a church or ministry’s curriculum plan. It is helpful to bring together a team to analyze what has been discovered about a particular community or target audience. What does the data say? What does it mean? How might this inform a curriculum plan?

Examples

The following section includes samples of psychographic and demographic data submitted by former students, including some information on how they have interpreted the data as a means of informing curriculum. These are not exhaustive studies but bits and pieces extracted from larger plans. (As with previous examples, these are from students living in various contexts. Most of them also included charts or graphs displaying demographics, but those are not included. I am only sharing a few of their general summaries and reflections, largely unedited.)

Harleysville, Pennsylvania, USA

Harleysville was originally settled by the Pennsylvania Dutch in the 18th century. There is no data on the religious affiliations of persons living within Harleysville, but Figure 1 at the end of this document speaks to the religious affiliations of all persons living in Montgomery County, of which Harleysville is a part. This image demonstrates that the largest religion in Montgomery County is Catholicism, with persons claiming no religion coming in a close second. The churches found in Harleysville, however, don’t seem to demonstrate this high concentration of Catholicism, as most of the churches are affiliated with either the Mennonite or Brethren denominations. It seems that students attending youth group will likely have many classmates who have not been exposed to Christianity or who are Catholic. With this in mind, the youth group should have a variety of outreach events planned to reach these students. It also seems likely that a portion of the students attending youth group will not have grown up within the Church. Therefore, the curriculum created should cover crucial aspects of Christianity, such as God’s character, who Jesus was, and what Christian life looks like.

Brewerville City, Montserrado, Liberia

Brewerville was historically occupied by the Dei, Gola, and Vai people, but the land was eventually given to settlers who were the Americo-Liberians, those who returned to Liberia as freed slaves. After the civil war in 1990 other groups and tribal people from Bomi, Cape Mount, and Lofa Counties settled in some communities within Brewerville. There are now residents from everywhere. This has affected crime, marriages, illegal sale of land and drugs just to name a few. Brewerville City has its share of crime ranging from petty to serious. To mitigate the crime rate, the police and the citizens of Brewerville and its environs set up a watch team. The city suffers issues like street and home robbery, stealing of anything that is forgotten outside, harassment for phones, bags, money, etc. Ninety percent of these crimes is done by gangs and drugs groups within Brewerville. Many young persons have given in to drugs and substance abuse and steals from others to be able to support their habits. They will uproot plants from the back of someone’s yard to sell and use the money to buy drugs. Some of them have left home and are dwelling in grave yards and along the streets. They will harass and victimize anyone they can. They can steal things from their own homes without regrets.…The majority of the population of Brewerville professes to be Christians. However, it is funny how this works here. A person is a Christian simply because they are not Muslims, even if they are not practicing Christians or accepted Jesus as their Lord and Savior. Some of the issues that have risen is the robbery being targeted mostly at the descendants of the settlers. The settlers too look down on the others and do not see them as of the same class. It is only of recent that intermarriages and the likes have not been a major problem although there are still some families who will never allow such. Furthermore, even in the churches there are similar problems. The mainline churches are mostly descendants of the settlers while the newly established ones are mainly natives. There is divide and issues of belongingness and acceptance.

Given all of the circumstances around the city of Brewerville, there is a need for this ministry for a greater influence and impact towards godliness. This generation needs a change so that they can influence the next generation. Like Paul says to the Jewish and Gentile believers in Ephesians, the city needs to understand that it is no longer natives nor settlers but rather citizens of Brewerville. In addition, the young people must be rescued from the influence of drugs, robbery, and immorality. It is not only affecting the children of the natives but also of the settlers.

Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA

Overall, the potential to start a good college ministry in the Fort Wayne area is good. There are six colleges in the city with a total of just under 25,000 full-time students combined. The campuses vary in size and population, with the largest having around 10,000 students and the smallest around 1,000. I would imagine having a small number of students from each campus in the church would be conducive to reaching them. A good way to engage with these students on the campuses would be to start small group meetings hosted by volunteers working alongside students from the church on each of their campuses. These meetings would be held on a weekly basis to encourage community building among the students already in CCFW, as well as provide a space for inviting other students on the campus (both Christian and Non). There would also be a larger monthly meeting for the whole ministry, in which students from each separate campus would be invited to fellowship as a larger group in the church.

Between Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox, Christians make up around 53% of the population in Fort Wayne. This leaves a combined 47% of people in Fort Wayne who are either Non-Christian Religious or Non-Religious (the latter being the larger group). If these stats are reflected on college campuses, then there are a large number of college students who could benefit from growing in their relationship with Christ through the ministry as well as a large number who could come to encounter Christ. In light of this, I would say the weekly meetings would be more of a discipleship opportunity (most of the time) for committed Christians in the ministry, while outreach events and service projects could be conducted within the campus communities to reach students who do not know Christ.

Diah Town, Grand Cape Mount County, Liberia

The County is sparsely populated with concentrations in commercial, mining and fishing areas. Three ethnic groups: Mande, Gola and Vai occupy this county. But the majority is Vai. Most of them speak the Vai dialect. It is estimated that 91% of the population is a Muslim. Some of them are orthodox Muslims. They have studied the Quran and are eager to practice rule that is spelled out in the Islamic law. However, others are nominal Muslims; that is, they carry the name but do not practice the religious rituals and practices. The Muslim parents send their children to attend the Islamic school and later become teacher to teach others. The Vai people give their daughters early in marriage. They do not believe in girl child education.

Since the Muslims of the Vai ethnic group are not much interested in the English education as compare to the Arabic education, most of what will be discussed will be in the Arabic translation of the Bible. The Vai ethnic group are good story tellers. They learn best through storytelling. Most of the history about their origins came down through story. At night children sit by the fire and the elders explain to them their beliefs and values through storytelling. Sometimes there are story surrounding a well-known person whom the learners can want to identify with. Sometimes they even go as far as adopting the name of the hero involved. They are very keen at listening to stories. While it is true that reading will be done, those who cannot read will benefit a lot through listening to the reading done by others.

Irving, Texas, USA

Fifty-eight and a half percent of people living in this area are Asian. Furthermore, 17.8% of people are white, 13.1% of people are Black or African American, 7.2% of people are Hispanic, 2.6% of people are two or more races, 0.4% of people are American Indian, and 0.3% are of some other race. When it comes to having multiple ethnicities in one area, the one thing that needs to happen is for this ministry to be a safe place for everyone to come together as one body in unity to worship the Lord regardless of ethnicity or background. There should be youth leaders from every ethnicity, not just white males and females. One way to connect youth is through eating different kinds of food from each ethnic background. Another way to unite the body as one is by having other groups of similar ages be together regardless of their ethnicity because each of the different ethnicities has and will experience different things in their lifetime. The students will be able to learn from each other by being in groups that are similar in age and gender but have a combination of ethnicities.

Jackson, Michigan, USA

According to census.gov, the percentage of people graduating high school from ages 25+ was 87.1%, but the percentage of people obtaining a bachelor’s degree or higher ages 25+ was 15.2%. These education statistics show that most of the workforce will have more manufacturing jobs or administrative jobs, which is what the employment statistics show above. This is very important for ministry opportunities because there will be lots of young adults in Jackson who aren’t going to college. This can cause loneliness, and even insecurity among young adults. It will be important to reach out to young adults and extend an invitation, so they can have a community surrounding them.

According to City-Data, there are 32,647 households in Jackson. 5,585 of these householders are male and 2,301 of these males are living alone. There are 7,625 female householders and 3,027 of these women are living alone. One of the most important facts is that there are 4,752 single-parent households (1,135 men and 3,617 women). According to mdch.state.mi.us, there were 430 divorces in Jackson 2021, with a rate of 5.4. This is very important information to know because a lot of my students may be missing father or mother figure in the home. Based off the data, it seems the most common prediction is an absence of a father. A strategy in my ministry would be to emphasize that God is our loving Father when we accept Christ into our hearts. Also, another important thing to do is get the parents involved in our church. Yes, make sure the students feel welcome, but also make sure the adults are invited as well. Secondly, many students could be impacted by divorce and broken families. In my ministry, this would impact how I talk about relationships between the two-sexes. I would emphasize the importance of honoring men and women and sex. Lastly, there will be many students coming from 2 parent households, but because Jackson has around 30% of the population identifying as religious, I will not assume their families are at all spiritual. This is an awareness the ministry must have towards the students that come in.

Developmental Characteristics

The most obvious way to think about the distinct audiences served by a curriculum is to consider age groupings or levels of development. It is common to find plans and resources specifically designed for preschool, children, youth, or adults. While most publishers consider developmental characteristics when determining the content or the overall approach to teaching and learning, not all available resources reflect a clear vision for fostering spiritual growth.

Developmental theorists generally focus on one particular aspect of development and often organize these characteristics into systems or taxonomies reflecting changes corresponding to age. Three of the most helpful in understanding the target audience for a curriculum are Jean Piaget, Robert J. Havighurst, and Erik Erikson. Piaget described ways in which cognitive abilities developed throughout life into adolescence, shaping the way various ages think and learn, from symbolic to concrete to abstract. His work provides insight into both appropriate content and methodology for various age groups.

Havighurst’s work, published in Human Development and Education, described six life stages and their associated tasks. He theorized that when a person completes these tasks within their corresponding time frame, they will be fulfilled and accepted by society. Developmental characteristics contribute to the possibility that the task can be achieved. He referred to this as a teachable moment, stating that if the timing wasn’t right, learning would not occur. To overcome this challenge, Havighurst recommended repetition so as to eventually connect with a student’s teachable moment. He also recognized that one’s culture influences the accomplishment of each task.^[9]

Erikson emphasized psychosocial development, dividing the human lifespan into eight distinct stages. He proposed that a specific crisis corresponds to each of the eight stages, and if the crisis weren’t resolved positively, it would impede development:

For example, the person who does not develop a sense of trust (Erikson’s first stage) may find it challenging as an adult to form a positive intimate relationship (Erikson’s sixth stage). Or an individual who does not develop a clear sense of purpose and identity (Erikson’s fifth stage) may become self-absorbed and stagnate rather than work toward the betterment of others (Erikson’s seventh stage).^[10]

Erikson’s work has been criticized, most often for the dramatic use of the term crisis to describe developmental tasks. However, understanding how various inner motivational factors across the lifespan can lead to maturity can be invaluable when thinking about a curriculum’s content and construction. D. Campbell Wyckoff reminds us that “the ages and stages merge into one another rather imperceptibly” and “individual consciousness takes precedence over the idea of ages and stages,” so Christian education curriculum should not be too closely focused on a general understanding of age-level characteristics.^[11]

After Havighurst published his book on education and human development, he wrote a paper on how his ideas were applicable to Christian education. This led to the idea that there are specific processes that allow learning to take place at every stage of the lifespan. These include the exploration stage, when people seek to understand themselves and their surroundings. This is followed by the discovery phase, in which a person finds meaning and value in both self and whatever is being explored. The final stage is the act of appropriation, when a person personally embraces the new idea and assumes corresponding personal and social responsibility.^[12]

It is important to understand cognitive, emotional, social, and physical abilities throughout each stage of the lifespan, and that information is readily available from a number of sources. Most of it could be considered common knowledge, but knowing something is not the same as appropriating that knowledge in ways that impact learning and foster spiritual transformation. Just as with a cultural study, it is imperative to reflect on developmental differences and ask, What is this saying, and what does it mean? How might this impact spiritual growth? How should this inform the experiences, structure, and methods in a curriculum plan for this age group?

The most helpful resources for understanding how to create specialized curricula for distinct age groups explain both developmental characteristics and how those should inform teaching. An older but valuable resource for this purpose is Exploring Christian Education by A. Elwood Sanner and A. F. Harper. It includes chapters focused on understanding basic developmental characteristics and their curricular implications for preschoolers, children, youth, and adults. The following is an example of how this resource describes preschool characteristics and some ideas on how they should be taught based on those characteristics.

The motor development of preschool children allows them to transition from total dependence on a caregiver to the relative freedom of exploring their world as they become more mobile. This independence also brings greater pressure on the child to conform, as parents and other adults set limits to protect them from environmental dangers. Language acquisition and understanding opens the world of communication, allowing expression of ideas and feelings. Preschoolers can understand more than they can express but cannot grasp abstract ideas. Children at this age prefer parallel play, in proximity with others, but not fully interacting. Their attention span is short, and for most tasks, girls have a longer attention span than boys. Preschoolers need to play, engage in a variety of activities, and be mobile. They are curious and enjoy creating, but their fine motor skills limit what they can produce.

Those who teach preschoolers should be creative, spontaneous, and joyful. Limits must be imposed but done so in a kind yet firm manner. Teachers should communicate clearly and precisely, using words a young child can understand. When storytelling, they should exhibit feeling and excitement. An educational space should be large enough to allow exploration, full of interesting things to discover, and free from safety hazards. Young children should not be expected to sit still for long periods of time, participate in group activities except on occasion, or engage in group games or activities.^[13]