{"id":512,"date":"2025-05-26T17:03:52","date_gmt":"2025-05-26T17:03:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=512"},"modified":"2025-09-07T16:30:25","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T16:30:25","slug":"public-communication-analysis-rhetorical-artifacts-and-historical-context","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/chapter\/public-communication-analysis-rhetorical-artifacts-and-historical-context\/","title":{"raw":"Public Communication Analysis: Rhetorical Artifacts and Historical Context","rendered":"Public Communication Analysis: Rhetorical Artifacts and Historical Context"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify an appropriate rhetorical artifact for a public communication analysis.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reconstruct the historical context for the rhetorical artifact.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">What can you accomplish through speech? What does\u2014or doesn\u2019t\u2014rhetoric have the power to do?<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_385\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-385\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332.png\" alt=\"Ronald Reagan gives a thumbs behind a podium\" width=\"500\" height=\"376\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_gives_a_thumbs_up_at_the_Berlin_Wall_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">President Ronald Reagan Gives a Thumbs Up at the Berlin Wall<\/a>, National Archives Catalog via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">It\u2019s tempting to name a popular (or notorious) speech\u2014especially by a US president\u2014and jump to its presumed effects. Some people may say, for instance, that President Ronald Reagan\u2019s 1987 <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId715\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Brandenburg Gate speech<\/span><\/a><\/span> (\u201cMr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.\u201d[footnote]Ronald Reagan, \u201cRemarks on East-West Relations at the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin\" (transcript, West Berlin, Germany, June 12, 1987), <em>Ronald Reagan Presidential Library &amp; Museum Archives<\/em>, https:\/\/www.reaganlibrary.gov\/archives\/speech\/remarks-east-west-relations-brandenburg-gate-west-berlin, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV<\/a>.[\/footnote]) caused the Berlin Wall to come down. Or that then\u2013<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId716\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/WXP6-S2VE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Senator John F. Kennedy\u2019s debating skills against President Nixon<\/span><\/a><\/span> won Kennedy the 1960 election. Or that President Donald Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId717\" href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">January 6, 2021, rally speech<\/span><\/a><\/span> caused the ensuing attack on the US Capitol.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">These uses of rhetoric are well known, but did they produce these outcomes? If so, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">how<\/em><\/span>? Perhaps more importantly, how did the rhetoric impact democracy? Did the rhetorical features in speeches strengthen or weaken the principles on which democracy depends as we introduced and outlined in chapter 31? An advocate can successfully achieve their speaking goals without necessarily strengthening democratic principles.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Public communication analysis<\/strong><\/span> is an approach to rhetorical criticism that helps critics determine a rhetorical artifact\u2019s features and ascertain their likely consequences. It focuses on these <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">central questions<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">Does the rhetorical artifact achieve the rhetor\u2019s goal? How or why not?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\">Does the rhetorical artifact strengthen or weaken democratic principles? How?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">This approach expands and updates the traditional method of criticism known as Neo-Aristotelianism to address our interest in democracy and to include several more contemporary rhetorical concepts.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We see this critical approach as an important building block for you as a speaker and democratic participant. It is an approach that will cultivate your analytical sensibilities and enhance your understanding of public speaking fundamentals as you focus on how other rhetors have employed them.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter, we outline the principles of public communication analysis and give you the tools to set up a rhetorical critique. We will focus on the first two of four major steps: identifying an appropriate rhetorical artifact and reconstructing the artifact\u2019s historical context. The next chapter will focus on analyzing the artifact through the final two steps: describing and interpreting the artifact and evaluating the artifact.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.1 Public Communication Analysis Steps<\/strong>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Identify<\/strong><\/span> an appropriate <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">rhetorical artifact<\/span>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><strong>Reconstruct<\/strong> the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">historical context<\/span><\/span>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><strong>Describe<\/strong> and <strong>interpret<\/strong> the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">rhetorical features<\/span><\/span>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evaluate<\/strong><\/span> the <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">artifact\u2019s effects<\/span> in terms of achieving the rhetor\u2019s goals and strengthening democratic principles.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Identifying a Rhetorical Artifact<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Recall from chapters 30 and 31 that a rhetorical artifact is an object of study in rhetorical criticism. It is a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time. To begin a public communication analysis, we recommend you choose an artifact that meets the criteria in box 32.2. We offer these criteria because public communication analysis best illuminates such artifacts. Rhetorical artifacts that more heavily use visual or audio symbols are typically better suited to different rhetorical methods, such as ideological criticism described in chapters 34 and 35.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.2 Guidelines for Selecting an Artifact for Public Communication Analysis<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The artifact should address a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">significant community concern or issue<\/strong><\/span> (i.e., focuses on a problem that a community cares about and that carries significant implications for that community\u2019s welfare).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Find an artifact that attempts to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">persuade<\/strong><\/span> an audience (i.e., not a purely informative artifact).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The artifact should mostly use <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">verbal symbols<\/strong><\/span> (i.e., uses more words\/speech than images, music, etc.).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The artifact you select should offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">single \u201cvoice<\/strong><\/span>\u201d or manner of expression. Even if written by a group (such as a company), the artifact should express itself as an individual (i.e., the artifact should not be a group discussion, dialogue, or online exchange).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ideally, you should have a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">complete transcript<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact and, if relevant, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">access to audio or video<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact being delivered.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Recall that in chapter 30, we characterized rhetorical criticism as an act of civic engagement. Using public communication analysis will improve your ability to think critically about public messages, educate fellow members accordingly, and participate in democratic governance. As we explained in chapter 31, these outcomes are more likely, however, if you choose rhetorical artifacts that pertain to civic affairs (the first criterion in box 32.2) than to, say, a group\u2019s hobbies or interests. Our preference for public speech that addresses significant community concerns aligns with others who have identified such rhetoric as particularly valuable for democratic participation. Box 32.3 provides examples.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.3 Public Speech Should Address Significant Community Concerns and Issues<\/strong>\r\n\r\nRhetorical practitioners and scholars have often deemed rhetoric that addresses substantive public issues as essential for maintaining a healthy democracy.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_386\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"318\"]<img class=\"wp-image-386 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333.jpeg\" alt=\"Glenn Frank\" width=\"318\" height=\"396\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Glenn_Frank.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Glenn Frank<\/a>, University of Wisconsin Archives via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">For instance, in 1919 as the Chautauqua circuits began to wane, the associate editor of <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Century<\/em><\/span> at the time, Glenn Frank, called on traveling lecturers to address the serious problems of the day in contrast to the then-popular lecturers \u201cwho tickle the fancy and flatter the prejudice of the crowd.\u201d He claimed the best speakers \u201cwill be able to introduce the community to the facts and principles of some underlying problem of our national life; and\u2026[they] will be able to answer questions from the crowd and to stimulate a genuine community discussion.\u201d[footnote]Glenn Frank, \u201cThe Parliament of the People,\u201d <em>The Century<\/em> 98 (1919): 416.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">More recently, communication scholars Ferald Bryan and others have said the best public speeches are concerned with \u201cworthy ideas to express, ideas that merit the attention and efforts of the speaker and the concern of the audience.\u201d[footnote]Ferald J. Bryan, R. R. Allen, Richard L. Johannesen, and Wil A. Linkugel, eds., <em>Contemporary American Speeches<\/em>, 10th ed. (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 2010), 2, 4.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Appropriate artifacts for public communication analysis can take many forms, including speeches and public statements by officials, concerned community members, and protesters; editorials and letters to the editor published in newspapers and magazines; and even relevant blog postings and websites.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this and the next chapter, we will focus on President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech as a rhetorical artifact. We will use it to exemplify the steps of public communication analysis, beginning with explaining why it qualifies as an appropriate rhetorical artifact.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.4 President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, Speech as a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong>\r\n\r\nA sample rhetorical artifact that meets the criteria is President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech in Washington, DC.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>It addressed a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">significant community concern or issue<\/strong><\/span>: the validity and legality of the 2020 national election.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Its goal was to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">persuade<\/strong><\/span>: President Trump attempted to convince audiences that the 2020 presidential election was \u201cstolen\u201d from him and that they needed to \u201csave our democracy\u201d and \u201ctake back our country.\u201d[footnote]Donald Trump, \u201cSpeech at Rally Before US Capitol Riot\u201d (transcript, Washington, DC, January 6, 2021), <em>Associated Press<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The speech <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">primarily used words<\/strong><\/span> to communicate: Trump\u2019s vocal and nonverbal delivery are important to consider, as is the visual setting and backdrop, but the speech mostly consisted of his words.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>It offered a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">single voice<\/strong><\/span>: While it was written with speechwriters (as is typical for speeches by US presidents), the final, delivered speech featured Trump\u2019s voice and perspective\u2014unlike, say, an interview that would also include the interviewee\u2019s questions and viewpoint.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>It is relatively easy to find a <a href=\"http:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>complete transcript<\/strong><\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/video\/trump-full-speech-at-dc-rally-on-jan-6\/E4E7BBBF-23B1-4401-ADCE-7D4432D07030\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>video<\/strong><\/a> of the speech online.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Reconstructing the Historical Context<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Once you\u2019ve identified an appropriate rhetorical artifact, you need to reconstruct its historical context. We defined <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">context<\/em><\/span> in chapter 31 as the conditions or situation within which rhetoric is produced. In that chapter, we said that context addresses \"who, why, what, to whom, when, and where surrounding the rhetoric\u2019s production.\u201d The answers to these questions help the critic determine how the context prompted and shaped the rhetoric. In this section, we briefly explain how learning about the historical context enhances your public communication analysis, and we return to President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech to illustrate.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWho?\u201d<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image334.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"106.666666666667px\" height=\"106.666666666667px\" \/>Find out what audiences might have known about the rhetor (the \u201cwho\u201d). In the previous chapter, we expanded the definition of rhetor to include the author(s) or creator(s) of the rhetorical artifact under examination. The rhetor\u2019s public reputation at the time the artifact was produced, the rhetor\u2019s position in society, and\/or the rhetor\u2019s background could have influenced what audiences expected from them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.5 President Trump as the Rhetor of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_388\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"375\"]<img class=\"wp-image-388\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335.png\" alt=\"President Trump speaking at a podium\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rawpixel.com\/image\/3307019\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">President Donald Trump<\/a>, U.S. Department of Agriculture via Rawpixel, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>. Editorial use only.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPresident Trump first became famous in the United States in the 1980s as a millionaire real estate mogul, known for his lavish lifestyle and his 1987 book <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Art of the Deal<\/em><\/span>, a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span> best seller. Starting in 2004, he regularly appeared on TV\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\"><img src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image336.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"0px\" height=\"0px\" \/><\/em><em class=\"import-i\">Apprentice<\/em><\/span> and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Celebrity Apprentice<\/em><\/span>, which he coproduced and hosted until 2015.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">He successfully ran for president (for the first time) in 2016, using the campaign slogan \u201cMake America Great Again.\u201d During his four-year term, Trump amassed large groups of supporters\u2014and critics\u2014for his stances and policies on immigration, climate change, transgender people, and the COVID-19 pandemic and for his granting of pardons, to name a few.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The 2020 election proved a close race against former Vice President Joe Biden, taking several weeks for final votes to be tallied and Joe Biden to be declared the winner in both electoral votes (306 to Trump\u2019s 232) and the popular vote.[footnote]\u201cPresidential Election Results: Biden Wins,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, November 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/11\/03\/us\/elections\/results-president.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/11\/03\/us\/elections\/results-president.html<\/a>.[\/footnote] During the time between that loss and his January 6 speech, Trump and his team sought to overturn the results through lawsuits and public appearances.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Therefore, audiences were likely very familiar with Trump when he spoke in early 2021 as a former real estate mogul and media celebrity and, more recently, as a controversial president.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhy?\u201d and \u201cWhat?\u201d<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image337.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"97.7777427821522px\" height=\"97.7777427821522px\" \/>Consider what prompted the artifact and the rhetor\u2019s goal(s) (the \u201cwhy\u201d) as well as the type of artifact the rhetor created (the \u201cwhat\u201d). Typically, a rhetor\u2019s goals and the artifact itself are responsive to the events, conditions, or forces that prompted the artifact\u2019s creation. Knowing the reason or motivating cause for the rhetoric\u2019s production, the speaker\u2019s goal, and the type of artifact created (including its major characteristics) can help guide your analysis as you look for strategies the rhetor employed to respond to the provocation and attempt to achieve their goal.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"import-sbh\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 0pt; text-indent: 0pt;\"><strong>Box 32.6 The Prompt for, and Goals and Account of, the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Why<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\"> (Prompt)<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech was provoked by the outcome of the 2020 national election with Joe Biden being chosen as the forty-sixth president.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Why (Goal)<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> He hoped to incite enough negative public reaction to convince Republican members of Congress and, especially Vice President Mike Pence, to reject the states\u2019 certification of Electoral College vote counts.[footnote]According to the<em> Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol<\/em>, Trump \u201cpressured Vice President Pence to obstruct the joint session of Congress on January 6th, falsely claiming that he had the power to refuse to count certain electoral votes. President Trump knew this was illegal but attempted to justify it with lies about the election.\u201d U.S. House of Representatives, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., <em>Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol <\/em>(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2022), https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/GPO-J6-REPORT\/pdf\/GPO-J6-REPORT.pdf, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9EAM-SMZ8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/9EAM-SMZ8<\/a>.[\/footnote] The joint congressional meeting scheduled for January 6, where Congress would affirm the count, was the last legal step to confirm Biden as president.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">What:<\/strong><\/span> Trump delivered in person a nearly seventy-two-minute speech. His presentation addressed numerous subjects. Primarily, though, President Trump claimed the 2020 election results were fraudulent. He accused Democrats of committing the fraud and blamed the media for helping them. He promised his supporters that they would rectify the deception with the help of Vice President Mike Pence and other Republicans. Trump encouraged supporters to march to the Capitol to encourage these leaders to overturn the results.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cTo Whom\u201d<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image325-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"109.333333333333px\" height=\"109.333333333333px\" \/>Research the artifact\u2019s audiences. Recall that in chapter 10, we differentiated the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">direct audience<\/em><\/span> (those who are exposed to and attend to the rhetoric)<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">target audience<\/em><\/span> (those the rhetor hopes to reach)<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">implied audience<\/em><\/span> (those who are represented in the message)<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">implicated audience<\/em><\/span> (those who will be affected by the message if it is successful)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We also considered whether the audience is<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">discrete<\/em><\/span> (limited to those who show up for an event at a particular day and time) or<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">dispersed<\/em><\/span> (unlimited by location and\/or time).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Such information can help you later analyze whether and how the artifact was adapted to these audiences. We discussed audience analysis and adaptation in chapters 10 and 11.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.7 The Audiences for the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong>\r\n\r\nPresident Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">direct audience<\/strong><\/span> included those in the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">discrete audience<\/strong><\/span> who joined his \u201cSave America\u201d rally in person at the Ellipse, a park near the White House in Washington, DC. His direct audience also included <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">dispersed <\/strong><\/span>viewers who watched the speech live (or later recorded) on C-SPAN or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">PBS NewsHour<\/em><\/span>. Trump likely recognized that while he could <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">target<\/strong><\/span> his message at supporters, his speech would also be heard and viewed by critics and advocates of Joe Biden. These Biden supporters, as well as Pence and other Republican congressional leaders, composed Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">implied and implicated audiences<\/strong><\/span>\u2014those referenced by his message and impacted if his speech was successful.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhen?\u201d<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image338.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"96\" height=\"96\" \/><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_393\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"375\"]<img class=\"wp-image-393\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339.png\" alt=\"Participants in the January 6th attack converge on the Capitol\" width=\"375\" height=\"266\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09265-2_(50821579347).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> 2021 storming of the United States Capitol<\/a> by Tyler Merbler via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Consider the timing of an artifact (the \u201cwhen\u201d). <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Timing<\/strong><\/span> includes both the specific date and time for the artifact and the time period in which the rhetoric was situated. The latter is important to consider because communities may think and talk about public issues differently over time as new problems, information, and perspectives emerge.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.8 The Timing of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong>\r\n\r\nPresident Trump delivered his speech on <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">January 6, 2021, at 12:00 p.m. EST<\/strong><\/span>. The time period of this speech is important, especially as we look back years later. His claims about what would or should happen if he was not elected president rang differently in the lead-up to the 2020 election compared to before the 2024 national election.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Before the January 6 attack<\/strong><\/span> on the US Capitol, Trump\u2019s encouragement to \u201ctake back our country\u201d or \u201cfight\u201d seemed more like fiery metaphors than literal instructions to inspire voter turnout.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">After the attack<\/strong><\/span>, however, Trump\u2019s comments sounded more literal since we know what happened after his speech. The physical attack on the Capitol also colored his later threats\u2014such as at a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId725\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">March 2024 rally<\/span><\/a><\/span>, where he said \u201cIt\u2019s going to be a bloodbath for the country\u201d if he didn\u2019t win that election.[footnote]Donald Trump, \u201cDonald Trump Speaks at Rally in Ohio\u201d (transcript, Dayton, OH, March 16, 2024), <em>Rev<\/em>, https:\/\/www.rev.com\/transcripts\/donald-trump-speaks-at-rally-in-ohio, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ<\/a>.[\/footnote] In light of January 6, such rhetoric sounded more nefarious or potentially threatening (and was criticized as such).<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Whether you think Trump\u2019s rhetoric contributed to the January 6 attack or not, a critic studying Trump\u2019s January 6 speech would need to differentiate between audience members who heard the speech live and audiences who watched a recording of the speech later (after the Capitol attack occurred), since their responses might differ accordingly.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhere?\u201d<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image340.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"111.066666666667px\" height=\"111.066666666667px\" \/>Reflect upon an artifact\u2019s location (the \u201cwhere\u201d) to help you later analyze how the rhetor adapted to it. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Location<\/strong><\/span> can include the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">the specific place the rhetor delivered or disseminated the artifact (e.g., the geographic location and\/or actual building or street)<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\">the medium by which the rhetor distributed the artifact (e.g., face-to-face, television, YouTube, newspaper, online blog)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">All locations pose limitations on and offer opportunities for how a rhetor can most effectively present their message. In chapter 10, we touched on the environmental factors a speaker must adapt to, such as the time of day, audience size, and communication medium, and we suggested ways a speaker may adjust to them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.9 The Location of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe location for President Trump\u2019s January 6 speech gave him challenges and opportunities. It\u2019s difficult to hold a large crowd\u2019s attention for long, especially when speaking in person <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">outside on a cold January day<\/strong><\/span>. At one point, Trump worried, \u201cI hope you don\u2019t get bored,\u201d and he later acknowledged, \u201cIt\u2019s freezing out here.\u201d\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Trump was also being <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">broadcast<\/strong><\/span>, and the rhetorical choices a speaker might make for the immediate physical conditions\u2014such as speaking more loudly, talking directly to the immediate crowd, and trying to keep them fired up\u2014may not translate well to television viewers who are experiencing the speech differently.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_395\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"375\"]<img class=\"wp-image-395\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341.png\" alt=\"Aerial photograph of the White House and The Ellipse\" width=\"375\" height=\"282\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/an-aerial-view-of-the-white-house-and-the-ellipse-336618\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a>, The U.S. National Archives via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Yet Trump could take advantage of the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">physical setting<\/strong><\/span>. The Ellipse is a grassy area between the White House (which could be seen behind Trump) and the Washington Monument. It butts into the National Mall and is just a few blocks from the US Capitol, where Congress would convene one hour after Trump began his speech to approve the Electoral College\u2019s votes. At one point, Trump even said, \u201cRight over there, right there, we see the event going to take place.\u201d So in addressing the crowd, Trump could capitalize on their physical proximity to the Capitol to help stress the urgency of the moment and the importance of walking to the building after the speech.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Reconstructing an artifact\u2019s context helps the critic determine whether and how the artifact achieved the rhetor\u2019s goal(s). The context explains the pressures, influences, and\/or problems addressed or negotiated through the artifact, which can enable the critic to better understand how the artifact functioned in that moment. This is also particularly important when considering the artifact\u2019s impact on democratic principles, which we discussed in the previous chapter. While we can talk about democratic ideals in general or broad terms, a community defines, prioritizes, and enacts those principles in relation to a specific issue at a particular moment in time.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 32.10 Questions to Ask About Historical Context<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>What might the audience have known about or expected from the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetor<\/strong><\/span>?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">prompted<\/strong><\/span> the rhetor to produce the artifact?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What was the rhetor\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">goal(s)<\/strong><\/span> for the artifact?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">type of artifact<\/strong><\/span> did the rhetor produce? What medium did it use?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Who were the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">audiences<\/strong><\/span> for the artifact, and how did the rhetor need to adapt to them?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What was the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">timing<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What was the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">location<\/strong><\/span>, and what restrictions or opportunities might that have created for the rhetor?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Contextual information informs the critic\u2019s analysis of the artifact as they interpret how the artifact was shaped by and helped shape its context. In the next chapter, we will turn to analyzing the artifact itself by providing instruction on the next two steps of public communication analysis.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Public communication analysis is an approach to rhetorical criticism that enables you to determine whether and how a rhetorical artifact achieves its goals and whether and how it strengthens democratic principles. The approach assumes that rhetoric that addresses public issues should strengthen democracy. This chapter provided the first two methodological steps necessary to conduct such an analysis.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>You begin by identifying a suitable rhetorical artifact. For public communication analysis, such an artifact must address a significant community issue or concern and should be persuasive, verbal, and expressed in a single voice.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You then reconstruct the historical context for the artifact by discovering what the audience might have known about the rhetor; what prompted the artifact and the rhetor\u2019s goal(s); the type of artifact developed and its medium; the audience(s) exposed to the artifact, targeted by the artifact, referenced in the artifact, and impacted by the artifact if its message succeeds; and the artifact\u2019s location and timing.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nlocation\r\npublic communication analysis\r\ntiming\r\nvoice\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What kinds of rhetorical artifacts are best suited to public communication analysis?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which aspects of an artifact\u2019s context should you discover? Why?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What does an artifact\u2019s location and timing refer to?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>How can you find a transcript of a rhetorical artifact? How might you create one if it doesn\u2019t already exist? What software might be helpful?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What opportunities and limitations do you think each of the following media poses for rhetors: in-person speech, television broadcast, social media post, online blog, social media post?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do you think artifacts always develop in response to preexisting issues, or can rhetors create the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">perception<\/em><\/span> of issues that need responding to through their artifacts? Can you think of instances of public discourse for each?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify an appropriate rhetorical artifact for a public communication analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Reconstruct the historical context for the rhetorical artifact.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">What can you accomplish through speech? What does\u2014or doesn\u2019t\u2014rhetoric have the power to do?<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_385\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-385\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-385\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332.png\" alt=\"Ronald Reagan gives a thumbs behind a podium\" width=\"500\" height=\"376\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332.png 539w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image332-350x263.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-385\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_gives_a_thumbs_up_at_the_Berlin_Wall_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">President Ronald Reagan Gives a Thumbs Up at the Berlin Wall<\/a>, National Archives Catalog via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">It\u2019s tempting to name a popular (or notorious) speech\u2014especially by a US president\u2014and jump to its presumed effects. Some people may say, for instance, that President Ronald Reagan\u2019s 1987 <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId715\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Brandenburg Gate speech<\/span><\/a><\/span> (\u201cMr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ronald Reagan, \u201cRemarks on East-West Relations at the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin&quot; (transcript, West Berlin, Germany, June 12, 1987), Ronald Reagan Presidential Library &amp; Museum Archives, https:\/\/www.reaganlibrary.gov\/archives\/speech\/remarks-east-west-relations-brandenburg-gate-west-berlin, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-1\" href=\"#footnote-512-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>) caused the Berlin Wall to come down. Or that then\u2013<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId716\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/WXP6-S2VE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Senator John F. Kennedy\u2019s debating skills against President Nixon<\/span><\/a><\/span> won Kennedy the 1960 election. Or that President Donald Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId717\" href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">January 6, 2021, rally speech<\/span><\/a><\/span> caused the ensuing attack on the US Capitol.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">These uses of rhetoric are well known, but did they produce these outcomes? If so, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">how<\/em><\/span>? Perhaps more importantly, how did the rhetoric impact democracy? Did the rhetorical features in speeches strengthen or weaken the principles on which democracy depends as we introduced and outlined in chapter 31? An advocate can successfully achieve their speaking goals without necessarily strengthening democratic principles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Public communication analysis<\/strong><\/span> is an approach to rhetorical criticism that helps critics determine a rhetorical artifact\u2019s features and ascertain their likely consequences. It focuses on these <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">central questions<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">Does the rhetorical artifact achieve the rhetor\u2019s goal? How or why not?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\">Does the rhetorical artifact strengthen or weaken democratic principles? How?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">This approach expands and updates the traditional method of criticism known as Neo-Aristotelianism to address our interest in democracy and to include several more contemporary rhetorical concepts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We see this critical approach as an important building block for you as a speaker and democratic participant. It is an approach that will cultivate your analytical sensibilities and enhance your understanding of public speaking fundamentals as you focus on how other rhetors have employed them.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter, we outline the principles of public communication analysis and give you the tools to set up a rhetorical critique. We will focus on the first two of four major steps: identifying an appropriate rhetorical artifact and reconstructing the artifact\u2019s historical context. The next chapter will focus on analyzing the artifact through the final two steps: describing and interpreting the artifact and evaluating the artifact.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.1 Public Communication Analysis Steps<\/strong><\/p>\n<ol>\n<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Identify<\/strong><\/span> an appropriate <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">rhetorical artifact<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><strong>Reconstruct<\/strong> the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">historical context<\/span><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><strong>Describe<\/strong> and <strong>interpret<\/strong> the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">rhetorical features<\/span><\/span>.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-sbnl\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evaluate<\/strong><\/span> the <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">artifact\u2019s effects<\/span> in terms of achieving the rhetor\u2019s goals and strengthening democratic principles.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Identifying a Rhetorical Artifact<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Recall from chapters 30 and 31 that a rhetorical artifact is an object of study in rhetorical criticism. It is a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time. To begin a public communication analysis, we recommend you choose an artifact that meets the criteria in box 32.2. We offer these criteria because public communication analysis best illuminates such artifacts. Rhetorical artifacts that more heavily use visual or audio symbols are typically better suited to different rhetorical methods, such as ideological criticism described in chapters 34 and 35.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.2 Guidelines for Selecting an Artifact for Public Communication Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The artifact should address a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">significant community concern or issue<\/strong><\/span> (i.e., focuses on a problem that a community cares about and that carries significant implications for that community\u2019s welfare).<\/li>\n<li>Find an artifact that attempts to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">persuade<\/strong><\/span> an audience (i.e., not a purely informative artifact).<\/li>\n<li>The artifact should mostly use <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">verbal symbols<\/strong><\/span> (i.e., uses more words\/speech than images, music, etc.).<\/li>\n<li>The artifact you select should offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">single \u201cvoice<\/strong><\/span>\u201d or manner of expression. Even if written by a group (such as a company), the artifact should express itself as an individual (i.e., the artifact should not be a group discussion, dialogue, or online exchange).<\/li>\n<li>Ideally, you should have a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">complete transcript<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact and, if relevant, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">access to audio or video<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact being delivered.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Recall that in chapter 30, we characterized rhetorical criticism as an act of civic engagement. Using public communication analysis will improve your ability to think critically about public messages, educate fellow members accordingly, and participate in democratic governance. As we explained in chapter 31, these outcomes are more likely, however, if you choose rhetorical artifacts that pertain to civic affairs (the first criterion in box 32.2) than to, say, a group\u2019s hobbies or interests. Our preference for public speech that addresses significant community concerns aligns with others who have identified such rhetoric as particularly valuable for democratic participation. Box 32.3 provides examples.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.3 Public Speech Should Address Significant Community Concerns and Issues<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rhetorical practitioners and scholars have often deemed rhetoric that addresses substantive public issues as essential for maintaining a healthy democracy.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_386\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-386\" style=\"width: 318px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-386 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333.jpeg\" alt=\"Glenn Frank\" width=\"318\" height=\"396\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333.jpeg 318w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333-241x300.jpeg 241w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333-65x81.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image333-225x280.jpeg 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-386\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Glenn_Frank.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Glenn Frank<\/a>, University of Wisconsin Archives via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">For instance, in 1919 as the Chautauqua circuits began to wane, the associate editor of <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Century<\/em><\/span> at the time, Glenn Frank, called on traveling lecturers to address the serious problems of the day in contrast to the then-popular lecturers \u201cwho tickle the fancy and flatter the prejudice of the crowd.\u201d He claimed the best speakers \u201cwill be able to introduce the community to the facts and principles of some underlying problem of our national life; and\u2026[they] will be able to answer questions from the crowd and to stimulate a genuine community discussion.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Glenn Frank, \u201cThe Parliament of the People,\u201d The Century 98 (1919): 416.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-2\" href=\"#footnote-512-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">More recently, communication scholars Ferald Bryan and others have said the best public speeches are concerned with \u201cworthy ideas to express, ideas that merit the attention and efforts of the speaker and the concern of the audience.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ferald J. Bryan, R. R. Allen, Richard L. Johannesen, and Wil A. Linkugel, eds., Contemporary American Speeches, 10th ed. (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 2010), 2, 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-3\" href=\"#footnote-512-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Appropriate artifacts for public communication analysis can take many forms, including speeches and public statements by officials, concerned community members, and protesters; editorials and letters to the editor published in newspapers and magazines; and even relevant blog postings and websites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this and the next chapter, we will focus on President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech as a rhetorical artifact. We will use it to exemplify the steps of public communication analysis, beginning with explaining why it qualifies as an appropriate rhetorical artifact.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.4 President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, Speech as a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A sample rhetorical artifact that meets the criteria is President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech in Washington, DC.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>It addressed a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">significant community concern or issue<\/strong><\/span>: the validity and legality of the 2020 national election.<\/li>\n<li>Its goal was to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">persuade<\/strong><\/span>: President Trump attempted to convince audiences that the 2020 presidential election was \u201cstolen\u201d from him and that they needed to \u201csave our democracy\u201d and \u201ctake back our country.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Donald Trump, \u201cSpeech at Rally Before US Capitol Riot\u201d (transcript, Washington, DC, January 6, 2021), Associated Press, https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-4\" href=\"#footnote-512-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>The speech <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">primarily used words<\/strong><\/span> to communicate: Trump\u2019s vocal and nonverbal delivery are important to consider, as is the visual setting and backdrop, but the speech mostly consisted of his words.<\/li>\n<li>It offered a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">single voice<\/strong><\/span>: While it was written with speechwriters (as is typical for speeches by US presidents), the final, delivered speech featured Trump\u2019s voice and perspective\u2014unlike, say, an interview that would also include the interviewee\u2019s questions and viewpoint.<\/li>\n<li>It is relatively easy to find a <a href=\"http:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>complete transcript<\/strong><\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wsj.com\/video\/trump-full-speech-at-dc-rally-on-jan-6\/E4E7BBBF-23B1-4401-ADCE-7D4432D07030\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>video<\/strong><\/a> of the speech online.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Reconstructing the Historical Context<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Once you\u2019ve identified an appropriate rhetorical artifact, you need to reconstruct its historical context. We defined <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">context<\/em><\/span> in chapter 31 as the conditions or situation within which rhetoric is produced. In that chapter, we said that context addresses &#8220;who, why, what, to whom, when, and where surrounding the rhetoric\u2019s production.\u201d The answers to these questions help the critic determine how the context prompted and shaped the rhetoric. In this section, we briefly explain how learning about the historical context enhances your public communication analysis, and we return to President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech to illustrate.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWho?\u201d<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image334.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"106.666666666667px\" height=\"106.666666666667px\" \/>Find out what audiences might have known about the rhetor (the \u201cwho\u201d). In the previous chapter, we expanded the definition of rhetor to include the author(s) or creator(s) of the rhetorical artifact under examination. The rhetor\u2019s public reputation at the time the artifact was produced, the rhetor\u2019s position in society, and\/or the rhetor\u2019s background could have influenced what audiences expected from them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.5 President Trump as the Rhetor of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_388\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-388\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-388\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335.png\" alt=\"President Trump speaking at a podium\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335.png 652w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335-225x150.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image335-350x233.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-388\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.rawpixel.com\/image\/3307019\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">President Donald Trump<\/a>, U.S. Department of Agriculture via Rawpixel, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>. Editorial use only.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>President Trump first became famous in the United States in the 1980s as a millionaire real estate mogul, known for his lavish lifestyle and his 1987 book <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Art of the Deal<\/em><\/span>, a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span> best seller. Starting in 2004, he regularly appeared on TV\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\"><img src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image336.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"0px\" height=\"0px\" \/><\/em><em class=\"import-i\">Apprentice<\/em><\/span> and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Celebrity Apprentice<\/em><\/span>, which he coproduced and hosted until 2015.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">He successfully ran for president (for the first time) in 2016, using the campaign slogan \u201cMake America Great Again.\u201d During his four-year term, Trump amassed large groups of supporters\u2014and critics\u2014for his stances and policies on immigration, climate change, transgender people, and the COVID-19 pandemic and for his granting of pardons, to name a few.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The 2020 election proved a close race against former Vice President Joe Biden, taking several weeks for final votes to be tallied and Joe Biden to be declared the winner in both electoral votes (306 to Trump\u2019s 232) and the popular vote.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cPresidential Election Results: Biden Wins,\u201d New York Times, November 2020, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/11\/03\/us\/elections\/results-president.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-5\" href=\"#footnote-512-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> During the time between that loss and his January 6 speech, Trump and his team sought to overturn the results through lawsuits and public appearances.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Therefore, audiences were likely very familiar with Trump when he spoke in early 2021 as a former real estate mogul and media celebrity and, more recently, as a controversial president.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhy?\u201d and \u201cWhat?\u201d<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image337.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"97.7777427821522px\" height=\"97.7777427821522px\" \/>Consider what prompted the artifact and the rhetor\u2019s goal(s) (the \u201cwhy\u201d) as well as the type of artifact the rhetor created (the \u201cwhat\u201d). Typically, a rhetor\u2019s goals and the artifact itself are responsive to the events, conditions, or forces that prompted the artifact\u2019s creation. Knowing the reason or motivating cause for the rhetoric\u2019s production, the speaker\u2019s goal, and the type of artifact created (including its major characteristics) can help guide your analysis as you look for strategies the rhetor employed to respond to the provocation and attempt to achieve their goal.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"import-sbh\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 0pt; text-indent: 0pt;\"><strong>Box 32.6 The Prompt for, and Goals and Account of, the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Why<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\"> (Prompt)<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> President Trump\u2019s January 6, 2021, speech was provoked by the outcome of the 2020 national election with Joe Biden being chosen as the forty-sixth president.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Why (Goal)<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> He hoped to incite enough negative public reaction to convince Republican members of Congress and, especially Vice President Mike Pence, to reject the states\u2019 certification of Electoral College vote counts.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"According to the Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol, Trump \u201cpressured Vice President Pence to obstruct the joint session of Congress on January 6th, falsely claiming that he had the power to refuse to count certain electoral votes. President Trump knew this was illegal but attempted to justify it with lies about the election.\u201d U.S. House of Representatives, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2022), https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/GPO-J6-REPORT\/pdf\/GPO-J6-REPORT.pdf, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/9EAM-SMZ8.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-6\" href=\"#footnote-512-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> The joint congressional meeting scheduled for January 6, where Congress would affirm the count, was the last legal step to confirm Biden as president.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">What:<\/strong><\/span> Trump delivered in person a nearly seventy-two-minute speech. His presentation addressed numerous subjects. Primarily, though, President Trump claimed the 2020 election results were fraudulent. He accused Democrats of committing the fraud and blamed the media for helping them. He promised his supporters that they would rectify the deception with the help of Vice President Mike Pence and other Republicans. Trump encouraged supporters to march to the Capitol to encourage these leaders to overturn the results.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cTo Whom\u201d<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image325-1.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"109.333333333333px\" height=\"109.333333333333px\" \/>Research the artifact\u2019s audiences. Recall that in chapter 10, we differentiated the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">direct audience<\/em><\/span> (those who are exposed to and attend to the rhetoric)<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">target audience<\/em><\/span> (those the rhetor hopes to reach)<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">implied audience<\/em><\/span> (those who are represented in the message)<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">implicated audience<\/em><\/span> (those who will be affected by the message if it is successful)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We also considered whether the audience is<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">discrete<\/em><\/span> (limited to those who show up for an event at a particular day and time) or<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">dispersed<\/em><\/span> (unlimited by location and\/or time).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Such information can help you later analyze whether and how the artifact was adapted to these audiences. We discussed audience analysis and adaptation in chapters 10 and 11.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.7 The Audiences for the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>President Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">direct audience<\/strong><\/span> included those in the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">discrete audience<\/strong><\/span> who joined his \u201cSave America\u201d rally in person at the Ellipse, a park near the White House in Washington, DC. His direct audience also included <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">dispersed <\/strong><\/span>viewers who watched the speech live (or later recorded) on C-SPAN or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">PBS NewsHour<\/em><\/span>. Trump likely recognized that while he could <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">target<\/strong><\/span> his message at supporters, his speech would also be heard and viewed by critics and advocates of Joe Biden. These Biden supporters, as well as Pence and other Republican congressional leaders, composed Trump\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">implied and implicated audiences<\/strong><\/span>\u2014those referenced by his message and impacted if his speech was successful.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhen?\u201d<\/h2>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignleft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image338.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"96\" height=\"96\" \/><\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_393\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-393\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-393\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339.png\" alt=\"Participants in the January 6th attack converge on the Capitol\" width=\"375\" height=\"266\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339.png 512w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339-300x213.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339-65x46.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339-225x160.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image339-350x248.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-393\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_2021_storming_of_the_United_States_Capitol_DSC09265-2_(50821579347).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"> 2021 storming of the United States Capitol<\/a> by Tyler Merbler via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Consider the timing of an artifact (the \u201cwhen\u201d). <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Timing<\/strong><\/span> includes both the specific date and time for the artifact and the time period in which the rhetoric was situated. The latter is important to consider because communities may think and talk about public issues differently over time as new problems, information, and perspectives emerge.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.8 The Timing of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>President Trump delivered his speech on <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">January 6, 2021, at 12:00 p.m. EST<\/strong><\/span>. The time period of this speech is important, especially as we look back years later. His claims about what would or should happen if he was not elected president rang differently in the lead-up to the 2020 election compared to before the 2024 national election.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Before the January 6 attack<\/strong><\/span> on the US Capitol, Trump\u2019s encouragement to \u201ctake back our country\u201d or \u201cfight\u201d seemed more like fiery metaphors than literal instructions to inspire voter turnout.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">After the attack<\/strong><\/span>, however, Trump\u2019s comments sounded more literal since we know what happened after his speech. The physical attack on the Capitol also colored his later threats\u2014such as at a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId725\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">March 2024 rally<\/span><\/a><\/span>, where he said \u201cIt\u2019s going to be a bloodbath for the country\u201d if he didn\u2019t win that election.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Donald Trump, \u201cDonald Trump Speaks at Rally in Ohio\u201d (transcript, Dayton, OH, March 16, 2024), Rev, https:\/\/www.rev.com\/transcripts\/donald-trump-speaks-at-rally-in-ohio, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ.\" id=\"return-footnote-512-7\" href=\"#footnote-512-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> In light of January 6, such rhetoric sounded more nefarious or potentially threatening (and was criticized as such).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Whether you think Trump\u2019s rhetoric contributed to the January 6 attack or not, a critic studying Trump\u2019s January 6 speech would need to differentiate between audience members who heard the speech live and audiences who watched a recording of the speech later (after the Capitol attack occurred), since their responses might differ accordingly.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">\u201cWhere?\u201d<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image340.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"111.066666666667px\" height=\"111.066666666667px\" \/>Reflect upon an artifact\u2019s location (the \u201cwhere\u201d) to help you later analyze how the rhetor adapted to it. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Location<\/strong><\/span> can include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">the specific place the rhetor delivered or disseminated the artifact (e.g., the geographic location and\/or actual building or street)<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\">the medium by which the rhetor distributed the artifact (e.g., face-to-face, television, YouTube, newspaper, online blog)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">All locations pose limitations on and offer opportunities for how a rhetor can most effectively present their message. In chapter 10, we touched on the environmental factors a speaker must adapt to, such as the time of day, audience size, and communication medium, and we suggested ways a speaker may adjust to them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.9 The Location of the January 6, 2021, Speech<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The location for President Trump\u2019s January 6 speech gave him challenges and opportunities. It\u2019s difficult to hold a large crowd\u2019s attention for long, especially when speaking in person <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">outside on a cold January day<\/strong><\/span>. At one point, Trump worried, \u201cI hope you don\u2019t get bored,\u201d and he later acknowledged, \u201cIt\u2019s freezing out here.\u201d<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Trump was also being <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">broadcast<\/strong><\/span>, and the rhetorical choices a speaker might make for the immediate physical conditions\u2014such as speaking more loudly, talking directly to the immediate crowd, and trying to keep them fired up\u2014may not translate well to television viewers who are experiencing the speech differently.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_395\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-395\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-395\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341.png\" alt=\"Aerial photograph of the White House and The Ellipse\" width=\"375\" height=\"282\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341.png 591w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341-300x226.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image341-350x264.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-395\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/an-aerial-view-of-the-white-house-and-the-ellipse-336618\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a>, The U.S. National Archives via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Yet Trump could take advantage of the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">physical setting<\/strong><\/span>. The Ellipse is a grassy area between the White House (which could be seen behind Trump) and the Washington Monument. It butts into the National Mall and is just a few blocks from the US Capitol, where Congress would convene one hour after Trump began his speech to approve the Electoral College\u2019s votes. At one point, Trump even said, \u201cRight over there, right there, we see the event going to take place.\u201d So in addressing the crowd, Trump could capitalize on their physical proximity to the Capitol to help stress the urgency of the moment and the importance of walking to the building after the speech.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Reconstructing an artifact\u2019s context helps the critic determine whether and how the artifact achieved the rhetor\u2019s goal(s). The context explains the pressures, influences, and\/or problems addressed or negotiated through the artifact, which can enable the critic to better understand how the artifact functioned in that moment. This is also particularly important when considering the artifact\u2019s impact on democratic principles, which we discussed in the previous chapter. While we can talk about democratic ideals in general or broad terms, a community defines, prioritizes, and enacts those principles in relation to a specific issue at a particular moment in time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 32.10 Questions to Ask About Historical Context<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>What might the audience have known about or expected from the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetor<\/strong><\/span>?<\/li>\n<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">prompted<\/strong><\/span> the rhetor to produce the artifact?<\/li>\n<li>What was the rhetor\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">goal(s)<\/strong><\/span> for the artifact?<\/li>\n<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">type of artifact<\/strong><\/span> did the rhetor produce? What medium did it use?<\/li>\n<li>Who were the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">audiences<\/strong><\/span> for the artifact, and how did the rhetor need to adapt to them?<\/li>\n<li>What was the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">timing<\/strong><\/span> of the artifact?<\/li>\n<li>What was the artifact\u2019s <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">location<\/strong><\/span>, and what restrictions or opportunities might that have created for the rhetor?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Contextual information informs the critic\u2019s analysis of the artifact as they interpret how the artifact was shaped by and helped shape its context. In the next chapter, we will turn to analyzing the artifact itself by providing instruction on the next two steps of public communication analysis.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Public communication analysis is an approach to rhetorical criticism that enables you to determine whether and how a rhetorical artifact achieves its goals and whether and how it strengthens democratic principles. The approach assumes that rhetoric that addresses public issues should strengthen democracy. This chapter provided the first two methodological steps necessary to conduct such an analysis.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>You begin by identifying a suitable rhetorical artifact. For public communication analysis, such an artifact must address a significant community issue or concern and should be persuasive, verbal, and expressed in a single voice.<\/li>\n<li>You then reconstruct the historical context for the artifact by discovering what the audience might have known about the rhetor; what prompted the artifact and the rhetor\u2019s goal(s); the type of artifact developed and its medium; the audience(s) exposed to the artifact, targeted by the artifact, referenced in the artifact, and impacted by the artifact if its message succeeds; and the artifact\u2019s location and timing.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>location<br \/>\npublic communication analysis<br \/>\ntiming<br \/>\nvoice<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What kinds of rhetorical artifacts are best suited to public communication analysis?<\/li>\n<li>Which aspects of an artifact\u2019s context should you discover? Why?<\/li>\n<li>What does an artifact\u2019s location and timing refer to?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>How can you find a transcript of a rhetorical artifact? How might you create one if it doesn\u2019t already exist? What software might be helpful?<\/li>\n<li>What opportunities and limitations do you think each of the following media poses for rhetors: in-person speech, television broadcast, social media post, online blog, social media post?<\/li>\n<li>Do you think artifacts always develop in response to preexisting issues, or can rhetors create the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">perception<\/em><\/span> of issues that need responding to through their artifacts? Can you think of instances of public discourse for each?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-512-1\">Ronald Reagan, \u201cRemarks on East-West Relations at the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin\" (transcript, West Berlin, Germany, June 12, 1987), <em>Ronald Reagan Presidential Library &amp; Museum Archives<\/em>, https:\/\/www.reaganlibrary.gov\/archives\/speech\/remarks-east-west-relations-brandenburg-gate-west-berlin, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/32J4-PSKV<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-2\">Glenn Frank, \u201cThe Parliament of the People,\u201d <em>The Century<\/em> 98 (1919): 416. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-3\">Ferald J. Bryan, R. R. Allen, Richard L. Johannesen, and Wil A. Linkugel, eds., <em>Contemporary American Speeches<\/em>, 10th ed. (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, 2010), 2, 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-4\">Donald Trump, \u201cSpeech at Rally Before US Capitol Riot\u201d (transcript, Washington, DC, January 6, 2021), <em>Associated Press<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/election-2020-joe-biden-donald-trump-capitol-siege-media-e79eb5164613d6718e9f4502eb471f27<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-5\">\u201cPresidential Election Results: Biden Wins,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, November 2020, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/11\/03\/us\/elections\/results-president.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2020\/11\/03\/us\/elections\/results-president.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-6\">According to the<em> Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol<\/em>, Trump \u201cpressured Vice President Pence to obstruct the joint session of Congress on January 6th, falsely claiming that he had the power to refuse to count certain electoral votes. President Trump knew this was illegal but attempted to justify it with lies about the election.\u201d U.S. House of Representatives, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., <em>Final Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol <\/em>(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Publishing Office, 2022), https:\/\/www.govinfo.gov\/content\/pkg\/GPO-J6-REPORT\/pdf\/GPO-J6-REPORT.pdf, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9EAM-SMZ8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/9EAM-SMZ8<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-512-7\">Donald Trump, \u201cDonald Trump Speaks at Rally in Ohio\u201d (transcript, Dayton, OH, March 16, 2024), <em>Rev<\/em>, https:\/\/www.rev.com\/transcripts\/donald-trump-speaks-at-rally-in-ohio, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/EHX2-RNFZ<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-512-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":32,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/512"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/512\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3309,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/512\/revisions\/3309"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/512\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=512"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=512"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=512"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=512"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}