{"id":508,"date":"2025-05-26T17:03:32","date_gmt":"2025-05-26T17:03:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=508"},"modified":"2025-09-06T19:07:38","modified_gmt":"2025-09-06T19:07:38","slug":"rhetorical-criticism-as-civic-engagement","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/chapter\/rhetorical-criticism-as-civic-engagement\/","title":{"raw":"Rhetorical Criticism as Civic Engagement","rendered":"Rhetorical Criticism as Civic Engagement"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">Describe rhetoric as symbolic action.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Complete the descriptive, interpretive, and evaluative steps of rhetorical criticism.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\">Demonstrate five mentalities through their rhetorical criticism.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">To this point in the textbook, our attention has focused on aiding your civic engagement through the creation and facilitation of speech. That is, we have primarily concentrated on producing <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">your own<\/em><\/span> rhetoric.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image312.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"106.666666666667px\" height=\"106.666666666667px\" \/>We now turn to rhetorical criticism to closely examine <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">other<\/em><\/span> rhetors\u2019 messages. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rhetorical criticism<\/strong><\/span> (or its synonym, rhetorical analysis) is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences. In other words, rhetorical criticism equips us to investigate the rhetorical choices other people make.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Rhetorical criticism functions as a form of civic engagement. Through rhetorical criticism, we become better, more knowledgeable consumers of public information. In other words, we notice persuasive appeals in the messages that bombard us daily and think more deeply about their implications. We can use this knowledge to educate fellow community members. Such insights help us hold officials and speakers accountable, weigh policy options, and lend support for, or voice resistance to, plans and proposals. In sum, rhetorical criticism enables democratic participants to improve both our understanding of public communication and the decisions made by our communities.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter we first describe rhetoric as symbolic action. We then explain the goal and steps of rhetorical criticism, which helps illuminate a rhetoric\u2019s symbolic action. We end by describing rhetorical criticism as an intellectual discipline for which critics should adopt specific mentalities.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetoric as Symbolic Action<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">In chapter 1, we defined rhetoric as a civic art devoted to the ethical study and use of symbols (verbal and nonverbal) to address public issues. Let\u2019s consider what we mean by \u201csymbols.\u201d A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">symbol<\/strong><\/span> is something that expresses an idea or refers to something beyond itself. Our definition of rhetoric references <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">verbal<\/em><\/span> symbols (language, our words) and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">nonverbal<\/em><\/span> symbols (facial expression, body language, etc.). Symbols can also be <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">visual<\/em><\/span> (images, graphics, signs, etc.) or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">audio<\/em><\/span> (sounds, beats, etc.).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter we examine the use of symbols more closely to see how they act and what they accomplish. We take as our guiding inspiration the conception of rhetoric as symbolic action, which comes from the most influential rhetorical scholar of the twentieth century, Kenneth Burke. Burke contended that we see and understand our world and ourselves through the medium of symbols.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image313.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"117.333333333333px\" height=\"117.333333333333px\" \/><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Symbolic action<\/strong><\/span> refers to the power of symbols to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">do<\/em><\/span> things\u2014that is, to shape our thoughts, values, and actions. As Burke explains, our words (as verbal symbols) are simultaneously reflections, selections, and deflections of reality:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">Words offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflection<\/em><\/span> of reality\u2014that is, they can be used to describe everyday situations, human society, our world, and the universe.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Words offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selection<\/em><\/span> of reality because we can never describe everything about something or all the angles or perspectives that can be taken on it. Thus, all descriptions are incomplete selections of reality.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\">Finally, words provide us with a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflection<\/em><\/span> of reality in that all descriptions focus our attention on certain aspects and take our attention away from others.[footnote]Kenneth Burke, <em>A Grammar of Motives<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 59.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As a high school student, for example, you may have made plans to hold an event at your house while your parents were away. When you invited your friends, you might have described the event as a \u201cparty.\u201d This term <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflected<\/em><\/span> the event and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selected<\/em><\/span> the fun and possibly raucous aspects of the event to excite your friends to attend. However, when you described the event to your parents to gain their permission, you may have called it a \u201cget-together\u201d or \u201changout.\u201d Those terms also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflected<\/em><\/span> the event. But they <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflected<\/em><\/span> your parents\u2019 attention away from its possible raucousness and, instead, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selected<\/em><\/span> its social nature to focus upon.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We make language choices\u2014as well as choices with our nonverbal, visual, and audio symbol use\u2014because we recognize that symbols <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">do something<\/em><\/span>. Through selection and deflection, they shape the way we see and understand the world. You might even say they constitute our reality; that is, our symbols compose the world we know and act within.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.1 Symbolic Action in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_368\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"375\"]<img class=\"wp-image-368\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314.png\" alt=\"Close up of car front showing damage\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.rawpixel.com\/image\/5912946\/image-light-public-domain-logo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> via Rawpixel, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nImagine you are driving and hit another car. No one is hurt, but both vehicles are damaged, and the incident is reported to the police.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>When you call your <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">automobile insurance agent<\/em><\/span> about the incident, you probably want to minimize what happened so your insurance rate does not increase. What do you call the incident? A \u201cfender-bender\u201d? A \u201cbump\u201d?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When you call your <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">significant other<\/em><\/span> to tell them what happened, you may want to amplify what happened to gain their sympathy. What do you call the incident for them? Perhaps a \u201ccrash\u201d or \u201ccollision\u201d?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Who else might you talk to about the incident, and what alternative words might you use to differently influence their perceptions of it?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span class=\"import-u\">Consider<\/span>: What does each label <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflect<\/em><\/span> listeners\u2019 attention away from? What aspects of the event do each of the words <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">select<\/em><\/span> for listeners to focus on?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetorical Criticism<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">If symbols function persuasively, then how can you best study this symbolic action? Rhetorical criticism is designed to do just that! As we defined earlier, rhetorical criticism is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nThough it\u2019s easy to confuse \u201ccriticism\u201d with complaint or fault finding, in rhetorical criticism, the word refers simply to analysis and study.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Through rhetorical criticism, we study how rhetoric\u2014be it verbal, textual, visual, or material\u2014acts persuasively. More specifically, we study how rhetoric functions through artifacts. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical artifact<\/strong><\/span> is an object of study in rhetorical criticism. By \u201cobject,\u201d we mean a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time. A rhetorical artifact is the focal point of analysis. Box 30.3 discusses the National Debt Clock as a sample rhetorical artifact. In the next chapter, we provide guidance for selecting a rhetorical artifact to analyze.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical critic<\/strong><\/span>, or person conducting the rhetorical criticism, seeks to understand how the artifact functions persuasively:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">How does the artifact create meaning for audiences?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">How does it invite audiences to perceive reality?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\">How does the artifact attempt to persuade audiences?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">When we say \u201caudiences\u201d in rhetorical criticism, we typically include an artifact\u2019s direct audience. As described in chapter 10, a direct audience consists of the people who are exposed to and attend to a speech\u2014or, in this case, the artifact. However, we keep \u201caudiences\u201d plural, because a critic may want to differentiate how an artifact functioned persuasively for various types of audiences discussed in chapter 10: a target audience (those most likely to be influenced by, or to act upon, the message), an implied audience (those represented in the artifact), and\/or an implicated audience (those impacted by the artifact if its persuasion is successful).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As a rhetorical critic, you will seek to discover how an artifact functions persuasively for audiences. To do so, you will analyze a rhetorical artifact in a thoughtful and systematic manner, following three basic steps: description, interpretation, and evaluation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Description<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image315.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"108.4px\" height=\"108.4px\" \/>In rhetorical criticism, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">description<\/strong><\/span> involves noticing, identifying, and explaining a rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence. In terms of rhetorical <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">content<\/em><\/span>, you examine the message or argument(s) that the artifact advances and the appeals used to do so. You ask what the rhetoric is claiming, conveying, or implying, and you try to provide specific answers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_371\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"333\"]<img class=\"wp-image-371\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-300x225.png\" alt=\"Two protesters stand next to a painting in a museum. &quot;No New Oil&quot; is spraypainted on the floor.\" width=\"333\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Just_Stop_Oil_Manchester_Art_Gallery_01072022.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Just Stop Oil<\/a> by Just Stop Oil via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.ph\/hLg9T\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Attribution<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_370\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"167\"]<img class=\"wp-image-370\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image316-200x300.png\" alt=\"Hands on a old-style typewriter\" width=\"167\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/person-holding-black-typewriter-on-brown-table-3945340\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by cottonbro studio via Pexels, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Rhetorical analysis also investigates the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">form<\/em><\/span> that rhetoric takes. The form includes but is not limited to symbol type (verbal, nonverbal, visual, audio), organization, style, medium, and genre. For instance, it is one thing for an environmental activist to publish an editorial in the newspaper about fossil fuels, and it\u2019s another for the same activist to deface a museum or historical painting. In both cases the point being made\u2014expressing opposition to climate change\u2014is the same, but differences in protest forms likely produce differing reactions and understanding. Consequently, it\u2019s important for you to describe not just the content but also the form of the rhetoric being analyzed.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Finally, you may also describe anything significant the artifact <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">leaves out<\/em><\/span>. When describing a political advertisement that quotes an opposing candidate, for instance, it may be important to note if the quotation was cut off early or made more sense when the comments just before it are included. Sometimes absence can be as important to notice and describe as presence.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">For your rhetorical criticism, use the prompts in box 30.2 and the example in box 30.3 for guidance and help with description.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.2 Describing a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Content:<\/strong><\/span> What is the artifact\u2019s primary message, claim, or point? Does it communicate that message explicitly or implicitly? What types of appeals does it use to communicate (logos, pathos, ethos)?<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Form:<\/strong><\/span> What types of symbols does the artifact utilize (verbal, nonverbal, visual, audio)? How might you characterize the artifact\u2019s style? How is it organized or arranged? What medium or genre does it use?<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Absence:<\/strong><\/span> What does the artifact exclude or overlook that is significant?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.3 Describing the National Debt Clock<\/strong>\r\n\r\nWe engage in description regularly as we encounter messages of all types. For example, imagine you are visiting New York City, and as you walk near Times Square, you come upon the following large display:\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_372\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"759\"]<img class=\"wp-image-372 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318.png\" alt=\"Digital sign on a building\" width=\"759\" height=\"569\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/rafiqphillips\/3980489159\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">US National Debt Clock<\/a> by Rafiq Phillips via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you were on your cell phone with a friend at this moment and wished to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">describe<\/strong><\/span> it to them, you might start by saying something like, \u201cI am looking way up at a huge sign that says, \u2018Our National Debt.\u2019 It has a digital counter that keeps changing by increasing the dollar amount. It shows how much the national debt is growing and how much each family in America owes. It doesn\u2019t indicate, though, if the national debt has ever decreased.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">That is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">description<\/strong><\/span> because it explains what you have observed about the sign\u2019s <em>content<\/em> (message), <em>form<\/em> (huge sign, changing digital counter, word choice), and <em>absence<\/em> (any historical decrease in the national debt).<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Notice, too, that the display qualifies as a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical artifact<\/strong><\/span>. It is the object (focus) of our analysis, and it is a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Interpretation<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Interpretation<\/strong><\/span> is the second step in rhetorical criticism, though it often closely accompanies description. Interpretation involves making inferences about how an artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence function persuasively.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Returning to the notion of symbolic action discussed earlier, you make interpretations by asking, \u201cWhat\u2019s that <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">doing<\/em><\/span>?\u201d where \u201cthat\u201d refers to the elements you described. For instance, how do pathos appeals invite the direct audience to perceive the situation? What do they emphasize? What does the artifact\u2019s organizational structure deflect the audience\u2019s attention away from? How might the artifact\u2019s absence of conflicting perspectives narrow the audience\u2019s memory of the topic or event? Your answers should use active verbs to accentuate the symbolic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">action<\/em><\/span>. If you are not using verbs when interpreting a rhetorical artifact, then you are probably describing rather than interpreting its persuasive functions or symbolic action.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The prompts in box 30.4 and the example in box 30.5 give you further support and help with interpretation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.4 Interpreting a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence attempt to influence audiences\u2019 perceptions, values, or actions?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s elements emphasize or draw attention to?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s elements deflect attention away from?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Use active verbs when answering these questions to accentuate the artifact\u2019s symbolic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">action<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.5 Interpreting the National Debt Clock<\/strong>\r\n\r\nLet\u2019s return to the phone conversation (started in box 30.3) with your friend about the National Debt Clock that hangs in New York City.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Fairly quickly after describing the clock, you would likely move to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">interpreting<\/strong><\/span> how its content, form, and absence function persuasively. You might exclaim the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Form<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cWow, the size and height of that huge sign <span class=\"import-u\">convey the enormity of the debt<\/span>!\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Content<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cThe use of the word \u2018our\u2019 on that sign <span class=\"import-u\">drives home the shared burden all Americans have and stokes fears that we cannot pay it off<\/span>.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Absence<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cBut by not showing if or how the debt has decreased in the past, the sign <span class=\"import-u\">implies it has only steadily grown<\/span>.\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Those are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">interpretations<\/strong><\/span> because they infer how the content, form, and absence are functioning persuasively. Notice that <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">active verbs<\/strong><\/span> (\u201cconvey,\u201d \u201cdrives home,\u201d \u201cstokes,\u201d \u201cimplies\u201d) capture the sign\u2019s symbolic action.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Evaluation<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">We clarified earlier that \u201ccriticism\u201d in rhetorical criticism does not mean complaining or fault finding. However, rhetorical analysis does include evaluation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image319.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"99.5333333333333px\" height=\"99.5333333333333px\" \/><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evaluation<\/strong><\/span> in rhetorical criticism involves making judgments <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">about the functions and consequences<\/em><\/span> of the rhetoric examined. Judgments are based on the artifact\u2019s rhetorical features: what they are (description) and how they function persuasively (interpretation) in the context. Evaluations are not about, nor based on, the critic\u2019s feelings about the artifact. Box 30.6 provides an example to make this distinction clear.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.6 Evaluating the National Debt Clock<\/strong>\r\n\r\nTo clarify appropriate from inappropriate evaluations for rhetorical criticism, let\u2019s return to the National Debt Clock example we considered in boxes 30.3 and 30.5. Imagine what else you might say to your friend about the sign:\r\n<table style=\"height: 268px;\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 37px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 721.25px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">Not Appropriate<\/span> Evaluations for Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 522.375px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">Appropriate<\/span> Evaluations for Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat sign is ugly and old looking. <span class=\"import-u\">I prefer<\/span> newer billboards with sharp LED lights.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat\u2019s a <span class=\"import-u\">helpful<\/span> sign because it reminds Americans what is happening every day, which is that each and every one of us is going further and further into debt!\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThinking about the national debt <span class=\"import-u\">stresses me out<\/span>. I don\u2019t need to be reminded about that when I\u2019m just trying to sightsee. It\u2019s unfair to put that sign here.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat sign is <span class=\"import-u\">misleading<\/span> because it makes increased debt seem unstoppable when some past presidents have played a role in successfully decreasing it.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">These are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">not appropriate<\/strong><\/span> evaluations. Although they make judgments (\u201cugly,\u201d \u201cunfair\u201d), they <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">focus more on the critic\u2019s preferences and feelings<\/em><\/span> (\u201cI prefer,\u201d \u201cstressed me out\u201d) as support than on the consequences of the artifact\u2019s rhetorical elements.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">These <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">are appropriate<\/strong><\/span> evaluations because they make judgments (\u201chelpful,\u201d \u201cmisleading\u201d) about the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">ethical and pragmatic consequences of the<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-iu\">artifact\u2019s<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">rhetorical elements<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">You might wonder <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">why<\/em><\/span> rhetorical critics judge an artifact\u2019s functions and consequences. Typically, such evaluations teach us about ourselves, a particular group, or a specific rhetorical artifact.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_374\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\" wp-image-374\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320.png\" alt=\"A man dressed in a Navy uniform sings on a baseball field\" width=\"500\" height=\"333\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/journalist-1st-class-andrew-scharnhorst-sings-the-national-anthem-to-start-fd2318\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Scharnhorst Sings the National Anthem<\/a> by U.S. Navy via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The evaluation generated by rhetorical criticism can <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">help us see an aspect of our society we had not seen clearly before<\/em><\/span>. For instance, rhetoric scholar Michael Butterworth analyzed how the continued regular performance of \u201cGod Bless America\u201d at sporting events since 9\/11 promotes nationalistic thinking that places sport in the service of US militarism. In doing so, Butterworth helped us see deeper meaning in what we might otherwise consider a harmless and even soothing ritual.[footnote]Michael L. Butterworth, <em>Baseball and Rhetorics of Purity: The National Pastime and American Identity During the War on Terror<\/em> (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Other times the evaluation <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">teaches us something about a particular group we had not known about or paid close attention to<\/em><\/span>. Examples include analysis that provides insight into the rhetoric of political and social movements ranging from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId532\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9SHB-6XB9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Moms for Liberty<\/span><\/a><\/span> to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId533\" href=\"https:\/\/blacklivesmatter.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Black Lives Matter<\/span><\/a><\/span> advocates. Here evaluation highlights the implications and ethics of tactics designed to move audiences and generate support for a cause.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Sometimes the evaluation teaches us about a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">particular <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">rhetorical artifact<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">\u2019s potential dangers or benefits<\/em><\/span> on the beliefs, attitudes, and courses of action of those who experience it. This might range from a critic judging what they perceive to be the damaging gender stereotypes promoted in some Disney films to valorizing the depiction of superheroes, such as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId535\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Captain America<\/span><\/a><\/span>, as embodying cherished values including freedom, equality, justice, and courage.[footnote]Mark D. White, \u201cCaptain America Reminds Nation of Shared Values,\u201d <em>San Diego Union-Tribune<\/em>, July 21, 2011, B7, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Evaluation is the most complex and significant component of rhetorical criticism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 30.7 Evaluating a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>How does your rhetorical criticism help us notice and understand an aspect of our society we had not clearly seen before?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What might your analysis teach us about a particular group, individual, organization, company, or institution?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What can your rhetorical criticism illuminate about the dangers or benefits of a particular rhetorical artifact\u2019s potential impacts on audiences\u2019 beliefs, attitudes, or courses of action?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In sum, rhetorical criticism carefully investigates the symbolic action by a rhetorical artifact through the steps of description, interpretation, and evaluation. It is both a practice and an intellectual discipline, which we will consider next.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetorical Criticism as an Intellectual Discipline<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">How do you know when your rhetorical criticism\u2014following the steps of description, interpretation, and evaluation\u2014has led you to the right answer? How do you know if your conclusions about a rhetorical artifact are correct? To answer, we need to characterize the discipline of rhetorical criticism. As we will explain, it is a systematic and reasonable as well as a creative and manifold field of study. And it requires critics to adopt a set of specific mentalities.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Systematic and Reasonable<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">On the one hand, rhetorical criticism is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">systematic and reasonable<\/em><\/span> discipline.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Systematic:<\/em><\/span> Your rhetorical criticism will more likely produce compelling insights if you systematically <span class=\"import-u\">follow the three steps<\/span> we discussed (description, interpretation, and evaluation) by answering the prompting questions we provided for each step.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Reasonable:<\/em><\/span> Critics ultimately <span class=\"import-u\">make an argument<\/span> about how an artifact functioned persuasively. As we discussed in chapter 26, an argument requires supporting claims with credible evidence. In rhetorical criticism, critics typically draw evidence from the artifact itself (i.e., quotations, descriptions, etc.), information about the artifact\u2019s historical context (which we explore in the next chapter), and possibly from the rhetorical method used by the critic (also discussed in the next chapter). Such evidence is required to give the audience reasons to accept your claims about the rhetorical artifact.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you do not provide sufficient, relevant evidence to support your claims\u2014discovered through your systematic analysis of the artifact\u2014your rhetorical criticism may be <span class=\"import-u\">insightful but not compelling<\/span>. In other words, your work will be interesting but insufficiently supported.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Creative and Manifold<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">On the other hand, rhetorical criticism is also a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">civic art<\/em><\/span>, much like rhetoric itself. That means it is a creative and manifold discipline.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Creative:<\/em><\/span> No matter how carefully or comprehensively you analyze an artifact, your criticism will be <span class=\"import-u\">influenced by your own personality, interests, choices, experiences, and values<\/span>. That\u2019s a strength of rhetorical criticism! Somewhat like painting a picture, your unique perspective can prompt creative insights and understanding about the artifact that other critics might miss.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Manifold:<\/em><\/span> Rhetorical criticism includes multiple, evolving methods, approaches, and conceptual lenses. Different critics will probably choose different approaches, notice different elements, interpret them differently, and\/or offer different evaluations. That\u2019s another strength of rhetorical criticism! The more critics who analyze a rhetorical artifact, the more insights we can gain.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Thus, if you follow the process of rhetorical criticism too rigidly or focus too much on describing the artifact rather than interpreting and evaluating it, your claims are likely to be <span class=\"import-u\">reasonable but not insightful<\/span>. They will lack the awareness and knowledge that your unique perspective can bring to your audience.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Together, the systematic\/reasonable and creative\/manifold qualities mean there are no \u201cright\u201d or \u201cwrong\u201d answers or conclusions when conducting rhetorical criticism. Does that mean anything goes or that any rhetorical critique you produce deserves an A grade? No! Instead, we tend to measure rhetorical criticism according to its <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">strength<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"height: 131px; width: 1302px;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 37px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 513.578px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Stronger Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 131px; width: 292.328px;\" rowspan=\"3\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\" style=\"text-align: center;\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-2213 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"326\" height=\"68\" \/><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 443.531px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Weaker Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 37px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 513.578px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Reasonable:<\/strong><\/span> offers compelling evidence for claims.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 443.531px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Unreasonable:<\/strong><\/span> provides insufficient evidence for claims.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 57px;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 57px; width: 513.578px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Insightful:<\/strong><\/span> helps people understand the artifact and its consequences in ways they might have missed.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 57px; width: 443.531px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Uninsightful<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> draws conclusions that most people already know or could readily conclude upon exposure to the artifact.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Notice we included arrows between stronger and weaker rhetorical criticism to indicate a spectrum or range of quality possible rather than two simple categories.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Mentalities to Adopt<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image322.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"111.36px\" height=\"111.36px\" \/>Because rhetorical criticism is systematic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">and<\/em><\/span> creative, critics must adopt particular mentalities to produce insightful and compelling rhetorical criticism. These five mentalities include the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Curiosity:<\/em><\/span> The persistent desire to understand how rhetoric functions for audiences. This curiosity drives you to go beyond what you want or expects to see to detailed observation and analysis.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Imagination:<\/em><\/span> The ability to break apart and examine rhetorical artifacts from multiple perspectives.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Systematic examination:<\/em><\/span> The employment of a thorough and orderly approach when analyzing discourse by moving from description to interpretation to evaluation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Discernment:<\/em><\/span> The ability to see beyond the surface of an artifact and shift from description to interpretation. You determine which rhetorical elements to focus on to generate the greatest insight into the functioning of an artifact.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Reasoned analysis:<\/em><\/span> The use of credible evidence, appropriate and representative examples, and an adherence to the standards of valid argumentation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter introduced rhetorical criticism as an intellectual discipline and form of civic engagement. It presented the understanding needed to appreciate what rhetorical criticism entails, such as the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">Rhetoric works as symbolic action as symbols have the power to shape thoughts, values and actions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Rhetorical criticism is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences. Description involves noticing, identifying, and explaining a rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence. Interpretation occurs when you make inferences about how an artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence function persuasively. Evaluation involves making judgments about the functions and consequences of the rhetoric examined.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Rhetorical criticism is a systematic and reasonable discipline as well as a creative and manifold field of study. Consequently, your work is judged based on its strength or weakness rather than its rightness or wrongness.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">To produce insightful and compelling rhetorical analysis, you should adopt such mentalities as curiosity, imagination, discernment, systematic study, and reasoned analysis.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\ndescription\r\nevaluation\r\ninterpretation\r\nrhetorical artifact\r\nrhetorical critic\r\nrhetorical criticism\r\nsymbol\r\nsymbolic action\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is meant by rhetoric as symbolic action?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is a rhetorical artifact?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As part of rhetorical criticism, what does description, interpretation, and evaluation refer to?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is rhetorical criticism systematic and reasonable? Creative and manifold? What happens when rhetorical criticism reflects one set of qualities but not the other?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the intellectual qualities necessary for a rhetorical critic?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Do you agree that our symbols compose the world we know and act within? Can you think of an example that demonstrates that? What are the implications of this claim?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is the process of rhetorical criticism similar to or different from scientific inquiry?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which set of rhetorical criticism\u2019s qualities do you feel most comfortable with: systematic and reasonable or creative and manifold? Least comfortable? Why?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the mentalities necessary to conduct rhetorical criticism have you already developed? Which do you need to strengthen?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">Describe rhetoric as symbolic action.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Complete the descriptive, interpretive, and evaluative steps of rhetorical criticism.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\">Demonstrate five mentalities through their rhetorical criticism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">To this point in the textbook, our attention has focused on aiding your civic engagement through the creation and facilitation of speech. That is, we have primarily concentrated on producing <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">your own<\/em><\/span> rhetoric.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image312.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"106.666666666667px\" height=\"106.666666666667px\" \/>We now turn to rhetorical criticism to closely examine <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">other<\/em><\/span> rhetors\u2019 messages. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rhetorical criticism<\/strong><\/span> (or its synonym, rhetorical analysis) is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences. In other words, rhetorical criticism equips us to investigate the rhetorical choices other people make.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Rhetorical criticism functions as a form of civic engagement. Through rhetorical criticism, we become better, more knowledgeable consumers of public information. In other words, we notice persuasive appeals in the messages that bombard us daily and think more deeply about their implications. We can use this knowledge to educate fellow community members. Such insights help us hold officials and speakers accountable, weigh policy options, and lend support for, or voice resistance to, plans and proposals. In sum, rhetorical criticism enables democratic participants to improve both our understanding of public communication and the decisions made by our communities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter we first describe rhetoric as symbolic action. We then explain the goal and steps of rhetorical criticism, which helps illuminate a rhetoric\u2019s symbolic action. We end by describing rhetorical criticism as an intellectual discipline for which critics should adopt specific mentalities.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetoric as Symbolic Action<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">In chapter 1, we defined rhetoric as a civic art devoted to the ethical study and use of symbols (verbal and nonverbal) to address public issues. Let\u2019s consider what we mean by \u201csymbols.\u201d A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">symbol<\/strong><\/span> is something that expresses an idea or refers to something beyond itself. Our definition of rhetoric references <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">verbal<\/em><\/span> symbols (language, our words) and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">nonverbal<\/em><\/span> symbols (facial expression, body language, etc.). Symbols can also be <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">visual<\/em><\/span> (images, graphics, signs, etc.) or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">audio<\/em><\/span> (sounds, beats, etc.).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter we examine the use of symbols more closely to see how they act and what they accomplish. We take as our guiding inspiration the conception of rhetoric as symbolic action, which comes from the most influential rhetorical scholar of the twentieth century, Kenneth Burke. Burke contended that we see and understand our world and ourselves through the medium of symbols.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image313.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"117.333333333333px\" height=\"117.333333333333px\" \/><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Symbolic action<\/strong><\/span> refers to the power of symbols to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">do<\/em><\/span> things\u2014that is, to shape our thoughts, values, and actions. As Burke explains, our words (as verbal symbols) are simultaneously reflections, selections, and deflections of reality:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">Words offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflection<\/em><\/span> of reality\u2014that is, they can be used to describe everyday situations, human society, our world, and the universe.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Words offer a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selection<\/em><\/span> of reality because we can never describe everything about something or all the angles or perspectives that can be taken on it. Thus, all descriptions are incomplete selections of reality.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\">Finally, words provide us with a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflection<\/em><\/span> of reality in that all descriptions focus our attention on certain aspects and take our attention away from others.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kenneth Burke, A Grammar of Motives (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 59.\" id=\"return-footnote-508-1\" href=\"#footnote-508-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As a high school student, for example, you may have made plans to hold an event at your house while your parents were away. When you invited your friends, you might have described the event as a \u201cparty.\u201d This term <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflected<\/em><\/span> the event and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selected<\/em><\/span> the fun and possibly raucous aspects of the event to excite your friends to attend. However, when you described the event to your parents to gain their permission, you may have called it a \u201cget-together\u201d or \u201changout.\u201d Those terms also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">reflected<\/em><\/span> the event. But they <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflected<\/em><\/span> your parents\u2019 attention away from its possible raucousness and, instead, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selected<\/em><\/span> its social nature to focus upon.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We make language choices\u2014as well as choices with our nonverbal, visual, and audio symbol use\u2014because we recognize that symbols <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">do something<\/em><\/span>. Through selection and deflection, they shape the way we see and understand the world. You might even say they constitute our reality; that is, our symbols compose the world we know and act within.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.1 Symbolic Action in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_368\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-368\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-368\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314.png\" alt=\"Close up of car front showing damage\" width=\"375\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314.png 644w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314-225x150.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image314-350x233.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-368\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.rawpixel.com\/image\/5912946\/image-light-public-domain-logo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> via Rawpixel, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Imagine you are driving and hit another car. No one is hurt, but both vehicles are damaged, and the incident is reported to the police.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>When you call your <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">automobile insurance agent<\/em><\/span> about the incident, you probably want to minimize what happened so your insurance rate does not increase. What do you call the incident? A \u201cfender-bender\u201d? A \u201cbump\u201d?<\/li>\n<li>When you call your <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">significant other<\/em><\/span> to tell them what happened, you may want to amplify what happened to gain their sympathy. What do you call the incident for them? Perhaps a \u201ccrash\u201d or \u201ccollision\u201d?<\/li>\n<li>Who else might you talk to about the incident, and what alternative words might you use to differently influence their perceptions of it?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span class=\"import-u\">Consider<\/span>: What does each label <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deflect<\/em><\/span> listeners\u2019 attention away from? What aspects of the event do each of the words <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">select<\/em><\/span> for listeners to focus on?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetorical Criticism<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">If symbols function persuasively, then how can you best study this symbolic action? Rhetorical criticism is designed to do just that! As we defined earlier, rhetorical criticism is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>Though it\u2019s easy to confuse \u201ccriticism\u201d with complaint or fault finding, in rhetorical criticism, the word refers simply to analysis and study.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Through rhetorical criticism, we study how rhetoric\u2014be it verbal, textual, visual, or material\u2014acts persuasively. More specifically, we study how rhetoric functions through artifacts. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical artifact<\/strong><\/span> is an object of study in rhetorical criticism. By \u201cobject,\u201d we mean a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time. A rhetorical artifact is the focal point of analysis. Box 30.3 discusses the National Debt Clock as a sample rhetorical artifact. In the next chapter, we provide guidance for selecting a rhetorical artifact to analyze.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical critic<\/strong><\/span>, or person conducting the rhetorical criticism, seeks to understand how the artifact functions persuasively:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">How does the artifact create meaning for audiences?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">How does it invite audiences to perceive reality?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\">How does the artifact attempt to persuade audiences?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">When we say \u201caudiences\u201d in rhetorical criticism, we typically include an artifact\u2019s direct audience. As described in chapter 10, a direct audience consists of the people who are exposed to and attend to a speech\u2014or, in this case, the artifact. However, we keep \u201caudiences\u201d plural, because a critic may want to differentiate how an artifact functioned persuasively for various types of audiences discussed in chapter 10: a target audience (those most likely to be influenced by, or to act upon, the message), an implied audience (those represented in the artifact), and\/or an implicated audience (those impacted by the artifact if its persuasion is successful).<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As a rhetorical critic, you will seek to discover how an artifact functions persuasively for audiences. To do so, you will analyze a rhetorical artifact in a thoughtful and systematic manner, following three basic steps: description, interpretation, and evaluation.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Description<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image315.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"108.4px\" height=\"108.4px\" \/>In rhetorical criticism, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">description<\/strong><\/span> involves noticing, identifying, and explaining a rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence. In terms of rhetorical <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">content<\/em><\/span>, you examine the message or argument(s) that the artifact advances and the appeals used to do so. You ask what the rhetoric is claiming, conveying, or implying, and you try to provide specific answers.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_371\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-371\" style=\"width: 333px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-371\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-300x225.png\" alt=\"Two protesters stand next to a painting in a museum. &quot;No New Oil&quot; is spraypainted on the floor.\" width=\"333\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317-350x263.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image317.png 512w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-371\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Just_Stop_Oil_Manchester_Art_Gallery_01072022.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Just Stop Oil<\/a> by Just Stop Oil via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/archive.ph\/hLg9T\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Attribution<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_370\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-370\" style=\"width: 167px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-370\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image316-200x300.png\" alt=\"Hands on a old-style typewriter\" width=\"167\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image316-200x300.png 200w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image316-65x98.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image316.png 222w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-370\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.pexels.com\/photo\/person-holding-black-typewriter-on-brown-table-3945340\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by cottonbro studio via Pexels, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Rhetorical analysis also investigates the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">form<\/em><\/span> that rhetoric takes. The form includes but is not limited to symbol type (verbal, nonverbal, visual, audio), organization, style, medium, and genre. For instance, it is one thing for an environmental activist to publish an editorial in the newspaper about fossil fuels, and it\u2019s another for the same activist to deface a museum or historical painting. In both cases the point being made\u2014expressing opposition to climate change\u2014is the same, but differences in protest forms likely produce differing reactions and understanding. Consequently, it\u2019s important for you to describe not just the content but also the form of the rhetoric being analyzed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Finally, you may also describe anything significant the artifact <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">leaves out<\/em><\/span>. When describing a political advertisement that quotes an opposing candidate, for instance, it may be important to note if the quotation was cut off early or made more sense when the comments just before it are included. Sometimes absence can be as important to notice and describe as presence.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">For your rhetorical criticism, use the prompts in box 30.2 and the example in box 30.3 for guidance and help with description.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.2 Describing a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Content:<\/strong><\/span> What is the artifact\u2019s primary message, claim, or point? Does it communicate that message explicitly or implicitly? What types of appeals does it use to communicate (logos, pathos, ethos)?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Form:<\/strong><\/span> What types of symbols does the artifact utilize (verbal, nonverbal, visual, audio)? How might you characterize the artifact\u2019s style? How is it organized or arranged? What medium or genre does it use?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Absence:<\/strong><\/span> What does the artifact exclude or overlook that is significant?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.3 Describing the National Debt Clock<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>We engage in description regularly as we encounter messages of all types. For example, imagine you are visiting New York City, and as you walk near Times Square, you come upon the following large display:<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_372\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-372\" style=\"width: 759px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-372 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318.png\" alt=\"Digital sign on a building\" width=\"759\" height=\"569\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318.png 759w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318-225x169.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image318-350x262.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-372\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/rafiqphillips\/3980489159\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">US National Debt Clock<\/a> by Rafiq Phillips via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you were on your cell phone with a friend at this moment and wished to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">describe<\/strong><\/span> it to them, you might start by saying something like, \u201cI am looking way up at a huge sign that says, \u2018Our National Debt.\u2019 It has a digital counter that keeps changing by increasing the dollar amount. It shows how much the national debt is growing and how much each family in America owes. It doesn\u2019t indicate, though, if the national debt has ever decreased.\u201d<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">That is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">description<\/strong><\/span> because it explains what you have observed about the sign\u2019s <em>content<\/em> (message), <em>form<\/em> (huge sign, changing digital counter, word choice), and <em>absence<\/em> (any historical decrease in the national debt).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Notice, too, that the display qualifies as a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">rhetorical artifact<\/strong><\/span>. It is the object (focus) of our analysis, and it is a specific instance of rhetoric that was produced for an audience at a particular time.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Interpretation<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Interpretation<\/strong><\/span> is the second step in rhetorical criticism, though it often closely accompanies description. Interpretation involves making inferences about how an artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence function persuasively.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Returning to the notion of symbolic action discussed earlier, you make interpretations by asking, \u201cWhat\u2019s that <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">doing<\/em><\/span>?\u201d where \u201cthat\u201d refers to the elements you described. For instance, how do pathos appeals invite the direct audience to perceive the situation? What do they emphasize? What does the artifact\u2019s organizational structure deflect the audience\u2019s attention away from? How might the artifact\u2019s absence of conflicting perspectives narrow the audience\u2019s memory of the topic or event? Your answers should use active verbs to accentuate the symbolic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">action<\/em><\/span>. If you are not using verbs when interpreting a rhetorical artifact, then you are probably describing rather than interpreting its persuasive functions or symbolic action.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The prompts in box 30.4 and the example in box 30.5 give you further support and help with interpretation.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.4 Interpreting a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence attempt to influence audiences\u2019 perceptions, values, or actions?<\/li>\n<li>What do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s elements emphasize or draw attention to?<\/li>\n<li>What do the rhetorical artifact\u2019s elements deflect attention away from?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Use active verbs when answering these questions to accentuate the artifact\u2019s symbolic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">action<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.5 Interpreting the National Debt Clock<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Let\u2019s return to the phone conversation (started in box 30.3) with your friend about the National Debt Clock that hangs in New York City.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Fairly quickly after describing the clock, you would likely move to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">interpreting<\/strong><\/span> how its content, form, and absence function persuasively. You might exclaim the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Form<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cWow, the size and height of that huge sign <span class=\"import-u\">convey the enormity of the debt<\/span>!\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Content<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cThe use of the word \u2018our\u2019 on that sign <span class=\"import-u\">drives home the shared burden all Americans have and stokes fears that we cannot pay it off<\/span>.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Absence<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">:<\/em><\/span> \u201cBut by not showing if or how the debt has decreased in the past, the sign <span class=\"import-u\">implies it has only steadily grown<\/span>.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Those are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">interpretations<\/strong><\/span> because they infer how the content, form, and absence are functioning persuasively. Notice that <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">active verbs<\/strong><\/span> (\u201cconvey,\u201d \u201cdrives home,\u201d \u201cstokes,\u201d \u201cimplies\u201d) capture the sign\u2019s symbolic action.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Evaluation<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">We clarified earlier that \u201ccriticism\u201d in rhetorical criticism does not mean complaining or fault finding. However, rhetorical analysis does include evaluation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image319.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"99.5333333333333px\" height=\"99.5333333333333px\" \/><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evaluation<\/strong><\/span> in rhetorical criticism involves making judgments <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">about the functions and consequences<\/em><\/span> of the rhetoric examined. Judgments are based on the artifact\u2019s rhetorical features: what they are (description) and how they function persuasively (interpretation) in the context. Evaluations are not about, nor based on, the critic\u2019s feelings about the artifact. Box 30.6 provides an example to make this distinction clear.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.6 Evaluating the National Debt Clock<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>To clarify appropriate from inappropriate evaluations for rhetorical criticism, let\u2019s return to the National Debt Clock example we considered in boxes 30.3 and 30.5. Imagine what else you might say to your friend about the sign:<\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 268px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 37px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 721.25px;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">Not Appropriate<\/span> Evaluations for Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 522.375px;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"color: #339966;\">Appropriate<\/span> Evaluations for Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat sign is ugly and old looking. <span class=\"import-u\">I prefer<\/span> newer billboards with sharp LED lights.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat\u2019s a <span class=\"import-u\">helpful<\/span> sign because it reminds Americans what is happening every day, which is that each and every one of us is going further and further into debt!\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThinking about the national debt <span class=\"import-u\">stresses me out<\/span>. I don\u2019t need to be reminded about that when I\u2019m just trying to sightsee. It\u2019s unfair to put that sign here.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThat sign is <span class=\"import-u\">misleading<\/span> because it makes increased debt seem unstoppable when some past presidents have played a role in successfully decreasing it.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 77px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 721.25px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">These are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">not appropriate<\/strong><\/span> evaluations. Although they make judgments (\u201cugly,\u201d \u201cunfair\u201d), they <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">focus more on the critic\u2019s preferences and feelings<\/em><\/span> (\u201cI prefer,\u201d \u201cstressed me out\u201d) as support than on the consequences of the artifact\u2019s rhetorical elements.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; vertical-align: middle; height: 77px; width: 522.375px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">These <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">are appropriate<\/strong><\/span> evaluations because they make judgments (\u201chelpful,\u201d \u201cmisleading\u201d) about the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">ethical and pragmatic consequences of the<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-iu\">artifact\u2019s<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">rhetorical elements<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">You might wonder <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">why<\/em><\/span> rhetorical critics judge an artifact\u2019s functions and consequences. Typically, such evaluations teach us about ourselves, a particular group, or a specific rhetorical artifact.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_374\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-374\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-374\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320.png\" alt=\"A man dressed in a Navy uniform sings on a baseball field\" width=\"500\" height=\"333\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320.png 570w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320-225x150.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image320-350x233.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-374\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/journalist-1st-class-andrew-scharnhorst-sings-the-national-anthem-to-start-fd2318\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Andrew Scharnhorst Sings the National Anthem<\/a> by U.S. Navy via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The evaluation generated by rhetorical criticism can <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">help us see an aspect of our society we had not seen clearly before<\/em><\/span>. For instance, rhetoric scholar Michael Butterworth analyzed how the continued regular performance of \u201cGod Bless America\u201d at sporting events since 9\/11 promotes nationalistic thinking that places sport in the service of US militarism. In doing so, Butterworth helped us see deeper meaning in what we might otherwise consider a harmless and even soothing ritual.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Michael L. Butterworth, Baseball and Rhetorics of Purity: The National Pastime and American Identity During the War on Terror (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010).\" id=\"return-footnote-508-2\" href=\"#footnote-508-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Other times the evaluation <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">teaches us something about a particular group we had not known about or paid close attention to<\/em><\/span>. Examples include analysis that provides insight into the rhetoric of political and social movements ranging from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId532\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9SHB-6XB9\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Moms for Liberty<\/span><\/a><\/span> to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId533\" href=\"https:\/\/blacklivesmatter.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Black Lives Matter<\/span><\/a><\/span> advocates. Here evaluation highlights the implications and ethics of tactics designed to move audiences and generate support for a cause.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Sometimes the evaluation teaches us about a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">particular <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">rhetorical artifact<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">\u2019s potential dangers or benefits<\/em><\/span> on the beliefs, attitudes, and courses of action of those who experience it. This might range from a critic judging what they perceive to be the damaging gender stereotypes promoted in some Disney films to valorizing the depiction of superheroes, such as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId535\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Captain America<\/span><\/a><\/span>, as embodying cherished values including freedom, equality, justice, and courage.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mark D. White, \u201cCaptain America Reminds Nation of Shared Values,\u201d San Diego Union-Tribune, July 21, 2011, B7, https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-508-3\" href=\"#footnote-508-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Evaluation is the most complex and significant component of rhetorical criticism.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 30.7 Evaluating a Rhetorical Artifact<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How does your rhetorical criticism help us notice and understand an aspect of our society we had not clearly seen before?<\/li>\n<li>What might your analysis teach us about a particular group, individual, organization, company, or institution?<\/li>\n<li>What can your rhetorical criticism illuminate about the dangers or benefits of a particular rhetorical artifact\u2019s potential impacts on audiences\u2019 beliefs, attitudes, or courses of action?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In sum, rhetorical criticism carefully investigates the symbolic action by a rhetorical artifact through the steps of description, interpretation, and evaluation. It is both a practice and an intellectual discipline, which we will consider next.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Rhetorical Criticism as an Intellectual Discipline<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">How do you know when your rhetorical criticism\u2014following the steps of description, interpretation, and evaluation\u2014has led you to the right answer? How do you know if your conclusions about a rhetorical artifact are correct? To answer, we need to characterize the discipline of rhetorical criticism. As we will explain, it is a systematic and reasonable as well as a creative and manifold field of study. And it requires critics to adopt a set of specific mentalities.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Systematic and Reasonable<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">On the one hand, rhetorical criticism is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">systematic and reasonable<\/em><\/span> discipline.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Systematic:<\/em><\/span> Your rhetorical criticism will more likely produce compelling insights if you systematically <span class=\"import-u\">follow the three steps<\/span> we discussed (description, interpretation, and evaluation) by answering the prompting questions we provided for each step.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Reasonable:<\/em><\/span> Critics ultimately <span class=\"import-u\">make an argument<\/span> about how an artifact functioned persuasively. As we discussed in chapter 26, an argument requires supporting claims with credible evidence. In rhetorical criticism, critics typically draw evidence from the artifact itself (i.e., quotations, descriptions, etc.), information about the artifact\u2019s historical context (which we explore in the next chapter), and possibly from the rhetorical method used by the critic (also discussed in the next chapter). Such evidence is required to give the audience reasons to accept your claims about the rhetorical artifact.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you do not provide sufficient, relevant evidence to support your claims\u2014discovered through your systematic analysis of the artifact\u2014your rhetorical criticism may be <span class=\"import-u\">insightful but not compelling<\/span>. In other words, your work will be interesting but insufficiently supported.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Creative and Manifold<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">On the other hand, rhetorical criticism is also a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">civic art<\/em><\/span>, much like rhetoric itself. That means it is a creative and manifold discipline.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Creative:<\/em><\/span> No matter how carefully or comprehensively you analyze an artifact, your criticism will be <span class=\"import-u\">influenced by your own personality, interests, choices, experiences, and values<\/span>. That\u2019s a strength of rhetorical criticism! Somewhat like painting a picture, your unique perspective can prompt creative insights and understanding about the artifact that other critics might miss.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bll\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Manifold:<\/em><\/span> Rhetorical criticism includes multiple, evolving methods, approaches, and conceptual lenses. Different critics will probably choose different approaches, notice different elements, interpret them differently, and\/or offer different evaluations. That\u2019s another strength of rhetorical criticism! The more critics who analyze a rhetorical artifact, the more insights we can gain.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Thus, if you follow the process of rhetorical criticism too rigidly or focus too much on describing the artifact rather than interpreting and evaluating it, your claims are likely to be <span class=\"import-u\">reasonable but not insightful<\/span>. They will lack the awareness and knowledge that your unique perspective can bring to your audience.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Together, the systematic\/reasonable and creative\/manifold qualities mean there are no \u201cright\u201d or \u201cwrong\u201d answers or conclusions when conducting rhetorical criticism. Does that mean anything goes or that any rhetorical critique you produce deserves an A grade? No! Instead, we tend to measure rhetorical criticism according to its <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">strength<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\n<table style=\"height: 131px; width: 1302px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 37px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 513.578px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Stronger Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 131px; width: 292.328px;\" rowspan=\"3\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption size-full wp-image-2213 aligncenter\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-2213 aligncenter\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"326\" height=\"68\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow.png 326w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow-300x63.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow-65x14.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-8-timeliness-double-arrow-225x47.png 225w\" \/><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 443.531px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Weaker Rhetorical Criticism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 37px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 513.578px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Reasonable:<\/strong><\/span> offers compelling evidence for claims.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 37px; width: 443.531px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Unreasonable:<\/strong><\/span> provides insufficient evidence for claims.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 57px;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 57px; width: 513.578px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Insightful:<\/strong><\/span> helps people understand the artifact and its consequences in ways they might have missed.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; height: 57px; width: 443.531px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Uninsightful<\/strong><strong class=\"import-b\">:<\/strong><\/span> draws conclusions that most people already know or could readily conclude upon exposure to the artifact.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Notice we included arrows between stronger and weaker rhetorical criticism to indicate a spectrum or range of quality possible rather than two simple categories.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Mentalities to Adopt<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image322.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"111.36px\" height=\"111.36px\" \/>Because rhetorical criticism is systematic <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">and<\/em><\/span> creative, critics must adopt particular mentalities to produce insightful and compelling rhetorical criticism. These five mentalities include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Curiosity:<\/em><\/span> The persistent desire to understand how rhetoric functions for audiences. This curiosity drives you to go beyond what you want or expects to see to detailed observation and analysis.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Imagination:<\/em><\/span> The ability to break apart and examine rhetorical artifacts from multiple perspectives.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Systematic examination:<\/em><\/span> The employment of a thorough and orderly approach when analyzing discourse by moving from description to interpretation to evaluation.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Discernment:<\/em><\/span> The ability to see beyond the surface of an artifact and shift from description to interpretation. You determine which rhetorical elements to focus on to generate the greatest insight into the functioning of an artifact.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Reasoned analysis:<\/em><\/span> The use of credible evidence, appropriate and representative examples, and an adherence to the standards of valid argumentation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter introduced rhetorical criticism as an intellectual discipline and form of civic engagement. It presented the understanding needed to appreciate what rhetorical criticism entails, such as the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">Rhetoric works as symbolic action as symbols have the power to shape thoughts, values and actions.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Rhetorical criticism is the description, interpretation, and evaluation of rhetoric to form judgments about its functions and consequences. Description involves noticing, identifying, and explaining a rhetorical artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence. Interpretation occurs when you make inferences about how an artifact\u2019s content, form, and absence function persuasively. Evaluation involves making judgments about the functions and consequences of the rhetoric examined.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Rhetorical criticism is a systematic and reasonable discipline as well as a creative and manifold field of study. Consequently, your work is judged based on its strength or weakness rather than its rightness or wrongness.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">To produce insightful and compelling rhetorical analysis, you should adopt such mentalities as curiosity, imagination, discernment, systematic study, and reasoned analysis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>description<br \/>\nevaluation<br \/>\ninterpretation<br \/>\nrhetorical artifact<br \/>\nrhetorical critic<br \/>\nrhetorical criticism<br \/>\nsymbol<br \/>\nsymbolic action<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is meant by rhetoric as symbolic action?<\/li>\n<li>What is a rhetorical artifact?<\/li>\n<li>As part of rhetorical criticism, what does description, interpretation, and evaluation refer to?<\/li>\n<li>How is rhetorical criticism systematic and reasonable? Creative and manifold? What happens when rhetorical criticism reflects one set of qualities but not the other?<\/li>\n<li>What are the intellectual qualities necessary for a rhetorical critic?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>Do you agree that our symbols compose the world we know and act within? Can you think of an example that demonstrates that? What are the implications of this claim?<\/li>\n<li>How is the process of rhetorical criticism similar to or different from scientific inquiry?<\/li>\n<li>Which set of rhetorical criticism\u2019s qualities do you feel most comfortable with: systematic and reasonable or creative and manifold? Least comfortable? Why?<\/li>\n<li>Which of the mentalities necessary to conduct rhetorical criticism have you already developed? Which do you need to strengthen?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-508-1\">Kenneth Burke, <em>A Grammar of Motives<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 59. <a href=\"#return-footnote-508-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-508-2\">Michael L. Butterworth, <em>Baseball and Rhetorics of Purity: The National Pastime and American Identity During the War on Terror<\/em> (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010). <a href=\"#return-footnote-508-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-508-3\">Mark D. White, \u201cCaptain America Reminds Nation of Shared Values,\u201d <em>San Diego Union-Tribune<\/em>, July 21, 2011, B7, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sandiegouniontribune.com\/2011\/07\/21\/captain-america-reminds-nation-of-shared-values\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-508-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":30,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/508"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":63,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/508\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3196,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/508\/revisions\/3196"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/508\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=508"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=508"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=508"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=508"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}