{"id":500,"date":"2025-05-26T17:02:38","date_gmt":"2025-05-26T17:02:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=500"},"modified":"2025-09-07T15:51:24","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T15:51:24","slug":"building-sound-arguments-through-quality-evidence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/chapter\/building-sound-arguments-through-quality-evidence\/","title":{"raw":"Building Sound Arguments Through Quality Evidence","rendered":"Building Sound Arguments Through Quality Evidence"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Construct sound arguments.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze arguments for their strengths and weaknesses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Evaluate common types of evidence to assess their quality.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Every day you make and encounter a variety of arguments. You might make an argument to your school\u2019s student government to start an esports club. On a video chat with your parents, you might present an argument for why they should purchase you a car for school or send (more) spending money. Later that night, your friends might seek to convince you that LeBron James, rather than Michael Jordan, is the best basketball player of all time.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image245.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"141.4px\" height=\"141.4px\" \/>We also routinely encounter arguments about important civic matters. We might read a letter in the newspaper by a school board member arguing why a local property tax increase is necessary to improve area schools. On news programs and in public speeches, we daily hear politicians and political operatives advance arguments about the best way to run the country.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">With so many different arguments competing for our adherence, how do we make decisions about personal matters, about what is best for our local community, and about what the nation should do on vital issues of the day?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">This chapter enables you to think carefully about logos. Logos is the logical or reasoned basis of an appeal (i.e., argumentation), and it is part of the rhetorical canon of invention (as explained in chapters 1 and 25). By learning more about argumentation, you will improve your ability to make sound decisions and critically analyze public options. You will also learn about speechmaking, since most speeches are based on a series of arguments. In this chapter, we examine two fundamental issues related to reasoning in public speaking: the structure of argument and the selection and evaluation of evidence.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Structure of Argument<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">argument<\/strong><\/span> is the advocacy of a belief, attitude, or course of action that is supported by evidence. An argument (or series of arguments) gives reasons why a listener should agree with the perspective being advocated. We begin by considering the development of what is known as the Toulmin model and some limitations to the practice of good reasoning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"import-bh\"><strong>Box 26.1 Classical Reasoning<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_45\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-45\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10.png\" alt=\"Bust of Aristotle\" width=\"256\" height=\"326\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_transparent.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Aristotle<\/a> by Alvaro Marques Hijazo via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Aristotle advocated the syllogism as the proper form of argument.[footnote]Aristotle, <em>Rhetoric<\/em> (ed. J. H. Freese, 1926), <em>Perseus Digital Library<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0060\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0060<\/a>.[\/footnote] A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">syllogism<\/strong><\/span> is a three-step proposition that consists of two premises and a conclusion. If the premises are valid, then the conclusion must be true. This is also known as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">deductive reasoning<\/strong><\/span>, reasoning that moves from valid premises to a specific conclusion. The classic example of a syllogism is the following:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-ulf\" style=\"margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 0pt;\">All men are mortal. (major premise)\r\nSocrates is a man. (minor premise)\r\nTherefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">If the two premises can be proven true, then it follows that the conclusion <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">must<\/em><\/span> also be true. This is also the process of formal logic, which relies on the certainty of the offered premises to reach what is considered an unquestioned, or true, conclusion.[footnote]Stephen Toulmin, <em>The Uses of Argument<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 122.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Syllogism is a valid argumentative form\u2014as is deductive reasoning generally. However, in regular conversation, we rarely have premises and conclusions that are accepted as absolutely true. Just as often, some premises are omitted from an argument. Observing such tendencies, Aristotle coined the enthymeme as a rhetorical syllogism.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">enthymeme<\/strong><\/span> is an informal, incomplete syllogism in which a speaker relies on an audience to use its knowledge and experience to supply missing information that completes the argument. Take, for example, the underdeveloped argument, \u201cTax incentives for electric vehicles are justified because they will slow climate change.\u201d Its central, unstated premises include \u201ctax incentives influence consumer behavior\u201d and \u201cvehicle emissions contribute to climate change.\u201d The enthymeme expects listeners to supply the missing reasoning that completes the argument.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, these premises can also be debated or argued. Even if, as an audience member, we can supply a missing premise, we might still reject the argument. In this case, we might reject that \u201cvehicle emissions contribute to climate change\u201d or that the government should intervene in the free market. The contingent nature of premises in enthymemes allows for disagreement on public matters and policy decisions.[footnote]John T. Gage, \u201cEnthymeme,\u201d in E<em>ncyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age<\/em>, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 223\u201325.[\/footnote] Exceptions and counterarguments to premises and conclusions result in complex arguments that defy categorization in classical syllogistic form.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">The Toulmin Model<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">In the 1950s, Stephen Toulmin developed an approach to reasoning that is accepted by many as the standard in argument studies.[footnote]Toulmin, <em>Uses of Argument<\/em>.[\/footnote] This approach, popularly known as the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Toulmin model<\/strong><\/span>, provides a way to understand and critique arguments. In its full form, the model consists of as many as seven parts (see box 26.2); however, we primarily focus on its three most central components: claim, data, and warrant.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Claim<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">claim<\/strong><\/span> of an argument is what you are attempting to prove and want an audience to accept. Examples of claims include the following:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\" style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">\u201cI should study chemistry this evening.\u201d\r\n\u201cMy education will provide a good return on investment (ROI).\u201d\r\n\u201cMy public speaking professor is the best.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image247.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"141.333333333333px\" height=\"141.333333333333px\" \/>Your thesis statement is the most important claim in your speech. For instance, in a persuasive speech, you might offer the thesis \u201cGreek organizations\u2019 new member recruitment should be improved.\u201d Each main point\u2014each reason for changing Greek recruitment\u2014is also a claim that supports your thesis. These are what we call <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">subclaims<\/em><\/span> because they are subordinate to the larger argument.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.2 The Toulmin Model<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBorn in London, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId407\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Stephen Toulmin (1922\u20132009)<\/span><\/a><\/span> studied mathematics and physics before turning to philosophy and a focus on ethics, logic, and reasoning after World War II.[footnote]William Grimes, \u201cStephen Toulmin, a Philosopher and Educator, Dies at 87,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, December 11, 2009, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html<\/a>; Toulmin, <em>Uses of Argument<\/em>, in particular chapter 3, \u201cThe Layout of Argument,\u201d 94\u2013145; Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, <em>Argumentation and Critical Decision Making<\/em>, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 91\u201397. We rely on Rieke, Sillars, and Peterson\u2019s explanation of the Toulmin model because it seems to best align with Toulmin\u2019s later views. See Gary A. Olson, \u201cLiterary Theory, Philosophy of Science, and Persuasive Discourse: Thoughts from a Neo-Premodernist,\u201d <em>Journal of Advanced Composition<\/em> 13, no. 2 (1993): 291, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/20865918\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/20865918<\/a>.[\/footnote] While Toulmin authored several books and taught at multiple US institutions, he is best known for the model of argument that came to be identified with his name.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In his 1958 book <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Uses of Argument<\/em><\/span>, Toulmin originally outlined an argument as consisting of six parts, but following the work of argumentation scholars Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, we offer the full model as containing seven elements:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Claim:<\/strong><\/span> The idea one is trying to prove and wants an audience to accept.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Data:<\/strong><\/span> Material or evidence that supports the acceptance of the claim. It answers the question \u201cWhy?\u201d or \u201cWhat have you got to go on?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Warrant:<\/strong><\/span> A statement that justifies the connection between data and claim. The warrant is often implied and answers the question \u201cHow do you get there?\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Backing:<\/strong><\/span> More specific evidence that reinforces data or the warrant. It explains the data or warrant as being \u201cOn account of.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Qualifier:<\/strong><\/span> A term that modifies the strength or certainty of the claim such as \u201cmight,\u201d \u201cusually,\u201d or \u201calways.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Reservation:<\/strong><\/span> A condition or exception when the claim would not be advocated. A reservation is noted by terms like \u201cexcept\u201d or \u201cunless.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rebuttal:<\/strong><\/span> A basis for challenging the validity of the claim.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Data<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A claim alone is not an argument. A claim offered without reason, support, or data is merely an assertion, a term previously introduced in chapter 5. An assertion fails to qualify as an argument because no reason is given for why it should be accepted. This is why <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">data<\/strong><\/span>, or material and reasons supporting the acceptance of the claim (also commonly called evidence), are essential in forming a valid argument. Note that \u201cdata\u201d here refers to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">all<\/em><\/span> types of evidence, not solely statistics and facts.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image248.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"127.666666666667px\" height=\"127.666666666667px\" \/>Data fill in the \u201cwhy\u201d or \u201cbecause\u201d for your claims. For your thesis that Greek organizations\u2019 new member recruitment should be improved, data could consist of the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>statistics on recent challenges to new member recruitment<\/li>\r\n \t<li>testimony about unfair recruitment practices<\/li>\r\n \t<li>examples of problems with the recruitment system<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Each piece of information allows you to better support the claim and more convincingly persuade an audience to accept your argument. Data are typically found throughout your speech.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Warrant<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image249.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"131.933333333333px\" height=\"131.933333333333px\" \/>Finally, a valid argument rests upon an acceptable warrant. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">warrant<\/strong><\/span> provides justification for using the data to support the claim. In essence the warrant is a bridge, often in the form of a value statement, that connects the data with the claim, reinforcing their relationship.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Warrants are typically implied rather than stated; however, at times it is important to state your warrant as well, particularly when an audience may not readily agree with the link between claim and data that you are otherwise asserting.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-bxf\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 0pt;\">Consider the following example to understand how a warrant functions:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-bxulf\" style=\"padding-left: 120px;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Claim<\/em><\/span>: I should replace my old truck with a new hybrid vehicle\r\n<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Data<\/em><\/span>: because hybrid vehicles produce significantly less environmental pollution.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-bx\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">The warrant wants to answer how we get from the data to the claim or explain what makes this data a reason to accept the claim.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-bxuls\" style=\"padding-left: 120px;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Warrant<\/em><\/span>: Reducing automotive emissions is environmentally responsible.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-bx\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">It is likely that this warrant would be implied, relying on enthymematic reasons supplied by an audience. Presumably, the positive contribution to the environment is a strong enough incentive to cause the person making this argument to take action. However, there could be counterarguments or rebuttals that might cause this person to reject the claim (the cost of a new vehicle, for example). A more developed argument would consider these possibilities by providing <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">backing<\/em><\/span> for the warrant and\/or data in quantifying the environmental benefits.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.3 Visualizing the Toulmin Model<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThe Toulmin model provides a layout to visualize or diagram arguments.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignleft wp-image-2590\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data and claim on the top to warrant on the bottom.\" width=\"750\" height=\"279\" \/>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Example argument: I should replace my old truck with a new hybrid vehicle because hybrid vehicles produce significantly less environmental pollution.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft wp-image-2589\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-1024x334.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data (less pollution) and claim (should replace old vehicle with hybrid) on the top to warrant (reducing emission is environmentally responsible, implied) on the bottom.\" width=\"800\" height=\"261\" \/><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The Toulmin model is more than a way of diagramming arguments\u2014it is a way of improving how you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">think<\/em><\/span> about arguments. It allows you to conceptualize and diagnose your own arguments and those produced by others. Putting an argument into the Toulmin form can allow you to<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>see what the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">claim<\/em><\/span> is and if it is reasonable;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>consider what the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">data<\/em><\/span> are, if there is enough, and the data\u2019s quality; and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>evaluate if there is a reasonable <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">warrant<\/em><\/span>, or one can be inferred, that connects the data and the claim.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">Because the model promotes clearer thinking about how we reason together, it is a way of enriching our civic engagement and the messages we send and receive about democratic participation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Arguments and Their Limits<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Rhetorical arguments are powerful but inexact. Audiences can weigh arguments on public issues and come to significantly different conclusions about their merit. Such is the case in the difficult issue of abortion access as different people hold different views on the issue, and different states have vastly different laws.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Some audiences may also refuse to reason. As the example in box 26.4 illustrates, some appeals, urges, and habits overcome reason, and not all decision-makers weigh competing arguments the same way.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.4 Limitations on Arguments Against Smoking<\/strong>\r\n\r\nThink about this abbreviated (and asserted) causal argument: \u201cPeople should not smoke because scores of scientific studies have proven that smoking has significant adverse health effects, including death.\u201d In a Toulmin form, the argument would appear as follows:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignright wp-image-2588 size-large\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-1024x378.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data (scientific studies about smoking health effects) and claim (people shouldn't smoke) on the top to warrant (we should not harm our bodies and staying alive is important, implied) on the bottom.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"378\" \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">A wealth of valid backing for this argument is available from the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId413\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C9BM-684J\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/span><\/a><\/span> and other sources. Yet many people who hear the strong evidence against it still smoke. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId414\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">American Cancer Society reports<\/span><\/a><\/span> that as of 2019, approximately thirty-four million people in the United States (14% of the population) smoke.[footnote]Sandy McDowell, \u201cSmoking Rates Historically Low, but Other Cancer-Related Behaviors Need Improvement,\u201d <em>American Cancer Society<\/em>, May 19, 2021, https:\/\/www.cancer.org\/research\/acs-research-news\/acs-report-smoking-rates-historically-low-but-other-cancer-related-behaviors-need-improvement.html, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63<\/a>.[\/footnote] The reasons are no doubt varied, including value hierarchies that justify the decision to smoke, challenges to the evidence concerning the impacts of smoking, and the difficulty of kicking the habit.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Evidence and Its Evaluation<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evidence<\/strong><\/span> is data and backing in the form of examples, statistics, and testimony that are used to support a claim. The key is finding not just any evidence but the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">best<\/em><\/span> evidence to support your argument. When you use weak evidence, your data will generally be insufficient to convince an audience of your argument\u2019s validity.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">To discover strong evidence, begin by selecting credible sources using the guidance in chapter 8. Then draw from your sources to find and evaluate evidence. Use the instructions provided next for choosing examples, scrutinizing statistics, and selecting testimony.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Choosing Examples<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">example<\/strong><\/span> provides a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. An example seeks to make a claim tangible to an audience. Examples generally take one of three forms: specific, hypothetical, and anecdotes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Specific Examples<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The most valuable type of example is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">specific example<\/strong><\/span>. A specific example is factual, one that has actually happened or is being experienced. A specific example prompts an audience to recognize that the claim (or a similar claim) has been demonstrated or proven true on a prior occasion.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.5 Specific Examples in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_300\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"wp-image-300 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253.png\" alt=\"Bret Stephens\" width=\"256\" height=\"365\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:WSJPlus_Dallas_Event_Feb_2015_Photo_i034_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">[Bret Stephens]<\/a> by Grant Wickes via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.[\/caption]In a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId416\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2023 commencement address at the University of Chicago<\/span><\/a><\/span>, Bret Stephens, a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span> columnist and Chicago graduate, gave a speech that argued for the value of \u201cspeaking your mind when other people don\u2019t want you to.\u201d One way he supported his thesis was through the use of a series of specific examples in which conventional wisdom proved incorrect and it would have been beneficial to interrogate the ideas of allies or superiors, including the following:\r\n<blockquote>Why were the economists and governors at the Federal Reserve so confident that interest rates could remain rock bottom for years without running a serious risk of inflation?\u2026Why were so few people on Wall Street betting against the housing market in 2007? Why were so many officials and highly qualified analysts so adamant that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction?\u2026and why did so many major polling firms fail to predict Donald Trump\u2019s victory in 2016?[footnote]Bret Stephens, \u201cGo Forth and Argue,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, June 2, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The effectiveness of Stephens\u2019s examples was in their succinct expression of a <strong>series of specific instances<\/strong> where most experts were ultimately proven incorrect and more dissenting voices would have been valuable.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Hypothetical Examples<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A less powerful but still useful type of example is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">hypothetical example<\/strong><\/span>. A hypothetical example is based on a plausible event or occurrence but does not represent a specific, actual instance. This sort of example allows an audience to visualize the claim, but it lacks the concrete data of a specific example.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.6 Hypothetical Examples in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_301\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-301\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254.png\" alt=\"Nikki Haley\" width=\"256\" height=\"372\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nikki_Haley_official_portrait.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nikki Haley<\/a> by Renee Ittner-McManus via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 2023 when former South Carolina governor and US ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId417\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">announced her intention to run for the 2024 Republican presidential nomination<\/span><\/a><\/span>, she spoke of her desire to create a country where \u201canyone can do anything and achieve their own American dream.\u201d To illustrate her claim, Haley pointed to a plausible range of American experiences, without naming any one individual in particular as possessing the experiences:\r\n<blockquote>The college student who\u2019s paying too much and getting too little from her education. The young adult in his first real job wondering how he\u2019ll ever afford a mortgage or start a family. The single mom working two jobs and three times harder than anyone else.\u2026I\u2019m fighting for all of us because all of us have to be in this together.[footnote]\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d video,\u00a0<em>NBC News<\/em>, February 15, 2023, 20:50, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Haley used <strong>hypothetical examples<\/strong> that allowed her audience to visualize themselves within the America she was seeking to lead.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Anecdotes<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, anecdotes, which we defined in chapter 11 as stories or extended examples in narrative form, are more elaborate examples that include additional detail. Often presented in the form of personal narratives, these examples seek a deeper connection with the audience. While powerful, these take time for a speaker to develop and present.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.7 Anecdotes in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAn effective illustration or personal narrative is again found in Nikki Haley\u2019s presidential campaign announcement. Three times in that speech Haley returned to her status as \u201cthe proud daughter of Indian immigrants\u201d to illustrate the relevance of her personal experience in leading \u201ca new generation\u201d of Americans \u201cinto the future.\u201d The extended example peaked near her conclusion where she underscored her experiences a final time. Speaking about the \u201ccountry\u2019s renewal,\u201d she shared:\r\n<blockquote>I\u2019m more confident than ever that we can make this vision real in our time because that\u2019s what I\u2019ve seen my entire life. As a brown girl growing up in a black and white world, I saw the promise of America unfold before me. As the proud wife of a combat veteran, I saw our people\u2019s deep love of freedom and our determination to defend it. As governor I saw our state move beyond hate and violence and lift up everyone in peace.\u2026The time has come to renew that spirit and rally our people. Our moment is now.\u2026Let\u2019s save our country\u2026and move forward together.[footnote]\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d 23:30.[\/footnote]<\/blockquote>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Here Haley offers an <strong>illustration of her life experiences<\/strong> that is richer than any specific accomplishment she has had as a politician and provides insight into her life.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Not all examples are equal, and thus you must carefully evaluate their selection. A poor example fails to justify your claim and risks damaging your credibility and persuasiveness.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Here are a few considerations (also found in box 26.15) that you should make when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating examples<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Is the example <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">representative<\/em><\/span>, or typical, of the broader situation or experience?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Are a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">sufficient number<\/em><\/span> of examples used to prove the claim?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have negative examples (counterexamples) been <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">addressed<\/em><\/span>?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is the example <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">compelling<\/em><\/span> in its detail, clarity, and vividness?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Consider these questions when evaluating the strength of an example, though an example may not meet all of these standards and still be satisfactory.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.8 Examples as Evidence<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAn example provides a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. It seeks to make a claim tangible to an audience. Examples generally take one of three forms.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Specific example:<\/strong><\/span> A specific example is factual, an example that has actually happened or is being experienced.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Hypothetical example:<\/strong><\/span> A hypothetical example is based on a plausible event or occurrence but does not represent a specific, actual instance.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Anecdote:<\/strong><\/span> Anecdotes, extended examples, or illustrations are more elaborate examples that contain additional detail.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Scrutinizing Statistics<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Statistics<\/strong><\/span>, a second common form of evidence, represent information in numeric form according to size, quantity, or frequency. In public speaking, statistics are most commonly used to demonstrate public opinion, capture common experiences and behaviors, and efficiently express the distribution and allocation of resources.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Speakers love statistics\u2014and with a little searching, it seems we can find a statistic for just about anything, from the number of pieces of mail processed and delivered every day by the US Postal Service (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId419\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">318 million<\/span><\/a><\/span>) to the percentage of people who believe in extraterrestrials (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId420\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">about 65% of adults in the United States<\/span><\/a><\/span>).[footnote]\u201cPostal Facts: One Day in the Postal Service,\u201d United States Postal Service, https:\/\/facts.usps.com\/one-day\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7<\/a>, accessed March 11, 2025; Courtney Kennedy and Arnold Lau, \u201cMost Americans Believe in Intelligent Life Beyond Earth; Few See UFOs as a Major National Security Threat,\u201d <em>Pew Research Center<\/em>, June 30, 2021, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2021\/06\/30\/most-americans-believe-in-intelligent-life-beyond-earth-few-see-ufos-as-a-major-national-security-threat\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Because statistics have an air of tangibility, appear to be exact, and seem authoritative, we too often accept them as true. In reality, statistics should be carefully scrutinized. As American author and satirist <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId421\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NFD4-4J5W\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Mark Twain is purported to have once said<\/span><\/a><\/span>, \u201cThere are lies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d Nonetheless, statistics are a useful basis of proof in many speeches.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.9 Statistics in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_302\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"408\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-302\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255.png\" alt=\"Jerome Powell\" width=\"408\" height=\"333\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Governor_Powell_150209_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Governor Powell<\/a> by Federalreserve via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn his <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId422\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">April 3, 2024, remarks<\/span><\/a><\/span> at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, Federal Reserve Board Chairman Jerome H. Powell relied on statistics in advancing his case that the nation\u2019s economic outlook was continuing to improve after a period of stubbornly high inflation. Powell supported his contention by pointing to improvements in inflationary trends and continued job growth.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Specifically, Powell noted that inflation had slowed from an annual rate of 5.2% in the prior year to only 2.5% in the twelve-month period leading to February 2024.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Moreover, three million new jobs had been created in 2023 as inflation declined, and an average of 265,000 new jobs were added in the previous three months.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Due to such changes, the Federal Open Market Committee predicted continual, if \u201csometimes bumpy,\u201d progress toward the Fed\u2019s goal of 2% annual inflation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThese <strong>statistics<\/strong>, which reflect the use of raw numbers, trends, and averages, were some of the primary data offered by Powell as he addressed the overall health of the US economy.[footnote]Jerome H. Powell, \u201cFireside Chat at the Stanford Business, Government, and Society Forum,\u201d Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, April 3, 2024, https:\/\/www.federalreserve.gov\/newsevents\/speech\/powell20240403a.htm, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Four of the most common forms of statistics called upon by public speakers are averages, raw numbers, trends, and polls.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Average<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">average<\/strong><\/span> is a common and seemingly benign statistic that is frequently used by speakers. In principle it represents what is typical\u2014what is average\u2014and in box 26.9, we see Federal Reserve Board Chair Powell making use of the average number of new jobs being added to the economy on a monthly basis\u2014265,000. However, an average may be more complicated than it initially appears because there are at least three methods for determining an average\u2014through mean, median, or mode.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The most common method for representing an average is the mean. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean<\/strong><\/span> is derived by summing all the data and dividing the total by the number of data points. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">median<\/strong><\/span>, in contrast, is the data point that appears in the exact middle of a sample, and the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mode<\/strong><\/span> is the result number that appears most frequently.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.10 Limitations of Using the Mean to Find an Average<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSuppose you were leading a discussion about the low working wages available for college students seeking summer employment. A statistic you might find valuable is the amount earned by the average student worker in your class during the previous summer (this would be a small sample but a relevant one to your audience).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_303\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-303\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256.png\" alt=\"Three examples of bell curves with the three types of averages\" width=\"1024\" height=\"386\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Relationship_between_mean_and_median_under_different_skewness.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Diva Jain, via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you had access to all the financial data, you could determine the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean income<\/strong><\/span> by adding together the total dollars earned by your classmates and then dividing it by the number of student workers. If twenty-five students had combined wages of $150,000, the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">mean<\/em><\/span> student income was $6,000. Seems clear enough, right?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, what if you found that this included $50,000 earned by a single student in an astoundingly successful entrepreneurial venture? How does this change the average, and what does it do to the value, meaning, and accuracy of this statistic for your speech?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Raw Number<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A second common statistic is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">raw number<\/strong><\/span>. In the student wages example in box 26.10, the raw number was $150,000 (the total wages earned). In box 26.9, Jerome Powell made use of a raw number as well\u2014three million jobs added in the previous year. We use raw numbers when we want to draw on the power of the magnitude of a number. An average may make a number seem small or insignificant, but by giving the entire scope of the data through a raw number, an audience may gain a better grasp of the situation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, the opposite may also be true: A raw number can make a problem look much worse than it actually is because it combines all the data into a single representation. Box 26.11 provides an example.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.11 Limitations of Using Only Raw Numbers<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image257.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"166.266666666667px\" height=\"166.266666666667px\" \/>\r\n\r\nIf you were to learn that the Biden administration proposed a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId426\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">$34 billion increase<\/span><\/a><\/span> (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">a raw number<\/strong><\/span>) to the United States\u2019 2025 defense budget, you might be concerned about the seemingly large budget increase. However, if you also were provided with a <strong class=\"import-b\">trend statistic <\/strong>clarifying this represented a budget increase of only about 4.1%\u2014and that after accounting for inflation over the prior two years the spending power of the defense budget experienced a 3% decline\u2014you might perceive the raw number differently.[footnote]Michael E. O\u2019Hanlon and Alejandra Rocha, \u201cWhat\u2019s in Biden\u2019s $850-Billion Defense Budget Proposal?,\u201d <em>Brookings Institution<\/em>, March 15, 2024, https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/articles\/whats-in-bidens-850-billion-defense-budget-proposal\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Trend Statistic<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When a speaker wants to demonstrate a change that has occurred over a period of time, the statistic that is most often used is called a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">trend<\/em><\/span>. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">trend statistic<\/strong><\/span> emphasizes change in a clear and meaningful way by providing two points of comparison. As the Powell example in box 26.9 demonstrates, trend statistics are important to economists. Trend statistics for inflation, gross domestic product, unemployment, and interest rates can provide a more focused and efficient evaluation of the immediate economic climate.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Polling Data<\/h3>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image258.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"138.8px\" height=\"138.8px\" \/><\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, perhaps the most popular type of statistic is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">polling data<\/strong><\/span>. A valid, scientific poll measures the opinions or beliefs of a large group of people by collecting data from a representative random sample that is similar in its demographics to the rest of the population and then generalizes the results.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Polling data is collected on a variety of topics, ranging from whom one intends to vote for in a presidential election to what is the best movie ever made. One of the oldest and most recognized polling researchers is Gallup, a global analytics firm that has measured public opinion for nearly a century. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId428\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9ZXW-MW5F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Gallup regularly tracks opinions on various topics<\/span><\/a><\/span>, such as consumer confidence, presidential approval, and the future of Medicare and Social Security. While polling data must be carefully analyzed, it is valuable in giving your audience an indication of what a larger public thinks. That is, while the majority may not always be right, their opinion can be influential.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, not all polls are equally valid, and in selecting polling data, there are several items you should consider:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>In particular, you should verify that the poll is based on a <em>representative random sample<\/em>. This can be determined by examining how the poll was conducted\u2014who was polled, how they were polled, how many people were polled, when they were polled\u2014and what the margin of error is. The <strong>margin of error<\/strong> is the uncertainty or potential variation in a polling result. It reflects the sampling error or margin in which there is less confidence about the accuracy of the survey result.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Also, be careful how you use <em>nonscientific internet polling<\/em> that asks website visitors their opinion on an issue. Such polls have a selection bias in terms of who chooses to take the poll. For example, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">Athletic<\/em><\/span>\u2019s daily sports newsletter, \u201cThe Pulse,\u201d periodically gives sports fans the opportunity to express their opinion on various sports-related issues and events. Such polls are interesting to sports fans and do show something of popular opinion, but be mindful that the results are not statistically valid.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.12 The American Freshman<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId429\" href=\"https:\/\/heri.ucla.edu\/cirp-freshman-survey\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">The Cooperative Institutional Research Program (<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">CIRP<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">) Freshman Survey<\/span><\/a><\/span>, administered by the Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, is taken by tens of thousands of first-time full-time college students each fall. In 2019, 126,642 new students from 178 four-year schools participated in the survey. Ninety-five thousand of those students from 148 institutions were included in the normative data that was reported. Among the results are the following:[footnote]\u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2019,\u201d <em>Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf<\/a>; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2015,\u201d <em>Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf<\/a>; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2012<em>,\u201d Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Getting a better job was identified as a \u201cvery important\u201d reason to attend college by 83.5% of respondents.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Making more money was named as a \u201cvery important\u201d reason to attend college by 73.2% of respondents.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A personal goal of being well-off financially was indicated by 84.3% of respondents.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A significant portion of respondents, specifically 43.6%, perceived themselves as \u201cmiddle-of-the-road\u201d politically.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Issue<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId430\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2019 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId431\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2015 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId432\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2012 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Abortion should be legal.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">73.1%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">63.6%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">61.1%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Students from disadvantaged social backgrounds should be given preferential treatment in college admissions.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">52.3%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">41.9%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Racial discrimination is no longer a major problem in America.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">18.6%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">23%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Same-sex couples should have the right to legal marital status.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">81.1%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">75%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Colleges have the right to ban extreme speakers from campus.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">51%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">43.2%<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>What other information would you want to know about the data before deciding whether to use it?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How useful might this information be to a speaker planning a presentation on a related topic?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How might the information be misused or overgeneralized?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What information do these results leave out?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In sum, it is crucial that you carefully scrutinize statistics. You should closely consider how a statistic was derived so you have a good grasp of its validity. It is ethically suspect to simply report a number without some understanding of how it was derived. Similarly, as a listener, be skeptical of statistics presented without enough information or context to evaluate their credibility. A statistical conclusion is only as good as the method used to arrive at it. For that reason, here are a few questions (also in box 26.15) you should ask when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating statistics<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>If the number is an average, is it <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">the mean, the median, or the mode<\/em><\/span>? Is it representative of the data, or is it skewed by an extreme data point?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What was the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-bi\"><em>sample size<\/em><\/strong><\/span>: the number of people used to determine the average or polled?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If using polling data, what is the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em>margin of error<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">or reliability<\/em><\/span>? Polls that have a margin of error greater than a few percentage points are suspect, particularly if the margin of error is greater than the difference between the polling result options.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">know<\/span> about the <em>sample<\/em>? Was it randomly selected? Are there factors about the sample population (age, gender, geography, etc.) that make the data suspect?<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">When<\/em><\/span> was the data collected? Public opinion, averages, and raw numbers can change with time.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.13 Statistics as Evidence<\/strong>\r\n\r\nA statistic represents information in numeric form according to size, quantity, or frequency. A statistic has an aura of certainty and exactness while being able to efficiently express public opinion, capture common experiences, or show the scope of an issue. Statistics may be expressed in several forms.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Raw number:<\/strong><\/span> A single number or figure that captures the breadth of an occurrence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Trend statistic:<\/strong><\/span> A trend statistic represents meaning over a specific period of time.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Polling data:<\/strong><\/span> Polling data seeks to represent the opinions or beliefs of a large group of people by collecting data from a representative random sample.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Average:<\/strong><\/span> An average seeks to numerically represent what is a typical or common experience. An average may be derived in three different ways.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean<\/strong><\/span> is calculated by adding together all the data and dividing the sum by the total number of data points. Within the mean might be outliers\u2014experiences that are either much larger or much smaller than what is typical.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">median<\/strong><\/span> seeks to compensate for outliers by representing the data point that is in the exact middle of the sample; it is the middle result from among all of the data points.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mode<\/strong><\/span> is the data point that appears most frequently in the sample.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Selecting Testimony<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Testimony is a third common form of evidence that serves as data and backing for arguments. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Testimony<\/strong><\/span> is facts or opinions drawn from the words, experiences, and expertise of another individual. Testimony is used to supplement our own opinions and experiences.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Testimony should come from authoritative sources on an issue. In chapter 8, we recognized three types of source authorities. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Subject<\/em><\/span> authorities are sources with trained expertise on the topic. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Societal<\/em><\/span> authority emphasizes a source\u2019s power to control outcomes based on their position within a society or organization. Authority can also be accrued through <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">special experiences<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Suppose you are giving a speech on US immigration from Venezuela. You may have sensible ideas, but your audience is unlikely to accept your opinions alone. Instead, you should build your credibility by supplying well-informed testimony as data for your claims. Perhaps you could draw on testimony from the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">subject authorities<\/em><\/span> such as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId433\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2BX-6GXC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Dr. Christopher Salas-Wright<\/span><\/a><\/span>, whose research focuses on Latin American migrants<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">societal authorities<\/em><\/span> such as the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId434\" href=\"https:\/\/www.migrationpolicy.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Migration Policy Institute<\/span><\/a><\/span>, a nonpartisan nonprofit organization<\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">authorities from special circumstances<\/em><\/span> like a Venezuelan who immigrated to the United States<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Testimony from such figures about the wisdom of your proposal would significantly aid the power of your argument.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Effective testimony provides explanation and analysis. Make clear how and why the source is authoritative on the issue. Then offer a sufficient amount of testimony to make the evidence compelling. For example, saying that an economic analyst declared \u201cThe current economic recovery will not continue\u201d <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">does<\/em> <em class=\"import-i\">n<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">o<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">t say much<\/em><\/span>. The testimony fails to provide an explanation or analysis for <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">why<\/em><\/span> this perspective is justified.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 26.14 Testimony in Practice<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_306\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-306\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259.png\" alt=\"Eric Holder speaking at a podium\" width=\"256\" height=\"359\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Attorney_General_Holder_Addresses_the_EDNY_(15548138890).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Attorney General Holder<\/a> by Douglas Palmer via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn a 2011 speech on voter registration and rights, then\u2013Attorney General Eric Holder used testimony to support his contention that voting rights are important and in need of attention.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Near the start of his address, Holder quoted former <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId436\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/H538-LHKK\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">President Lyndon B. Johnson<\/span><\/a><\/span> as saying, \u201cThe right to vote is the basic right, without which all others are meaningless.\u201d Holder drew from Johnson\u2019s authority as the president who in 1965 signed the Voting Rights Act into law.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In turn, to establish that there was a threat to this essential right, Holder drew from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId437\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/H85Q-HSMJ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">US Congressman John Lewis<\/span><\/a><\/span>, a civil rights leader from the 1960s with firsthand knowledge and experience of the struggles over voter registration and voting rights. Holder quoted Lewis to supply testimony that voting rights are \u201cunder attack\u2026[by] a deliberate and systematic attempt to prevent millions of elderly voters, young voters, students, [and] minority and low-income voters from exercising their constitutional right to engage in the democratic pro[cess].\u201d[footnote]All quotes from Eric Holder, \u201cAttorney General Eric Holder Speaks at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library &amp; Museum\" (transcript, Austin, TX, December 13, 2011), <em>U.S. Department of Justice Archives<\/em>, https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archives\/opa\/speech\/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-lyndon-baines-johnson-library-museum, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J5AQ-2X5J\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/J5AQ-2X5J<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this way Attorney General Holder, himself a credible source based on his title and position, enhanced his argument through the use of <strong>testimony<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As with the other forms of evidence, there are some considerations to make (also in box 26.15) when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating testimony<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Is the source a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">qualified<\/em><\/span> authority due to their subject expertise, societal position, or special circumstances? The testimony will strengthen your speech only if the source can truly add insight based on their status as a qualified authority on the topic being addressed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does the source have <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">firsthand knowledge<\/em><\/span> of the issue? Ideally, the testimony is based on experience rather than opinion, and the source has had close dealings with the issues you are addressing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Does the source have <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">excessive personal interest<\/em><\/span> in the issue? A conflict of interest might overly bias the source\u2019s testimony.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">assumptions<\/em><\/span> are made in the testimony? Consider what the source assumed when they made the comments and consider whether those assumptions are consistent with your own assumptions and argument.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Examples, statistics, and testimony are necessary components of valid arguments as they provide the substance used to demonstrate claims. Effective speakers use all three types of evidence in their presentations. Box 26.15 summarizes useful guidelines for selecting and evaluating examples, statistics, and testimony as you build and listen to speeches and arguments.<\/p>\r\n<strong>Box 26.15 Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Evidence<\/strong>\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 29.65pt;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Universal Criteria<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Examples<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Statistics<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Testimony<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 29.65pt;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence relevant?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence recent?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence credible?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the evidence contain bias?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the evidence provide explanation and analysis?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the certainty of the evidence?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the example representative?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Are there a sufficient number of examples?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Have negative examples been addressed?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Are the examples compelling in their detail and clarity?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">How was the average arrived at?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the sample size?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the margin of error or reliability of the poll?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is known about the sample?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">When was the data collected?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the source a qualified authority?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the source have firsthand knowledge?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the source have excessive personal interest or bias?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-tdul\">Have assumptions in the testimony been accounted for?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Arguments form the basis of decisions we make daily; thus, the ability to produce high-quality arguments is of vital concern to public speaking and civic participation. In this chapter you have learned the fundamental elements of argument and how to support them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-blf\">An argument is the advocacy of a belief, attitude, or course of action that is supported by evidence. An argument (or series of arguments) gives listeners reasons for adopting or agreeing with the perspective advocated.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">The Toulmin model of argument is a seven-part model that provides a way to conceptualize, verify, and critique arguments so that one can more effectively understand and evaluate public arguments.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">The central elements of the Toulmin model are claim, data, and warrant. The claim of an argument is what the speaker seeks to prove and wants an audience to accept. Data are material and reasons that support the acceptance of the claim. The warrant provides the justification for using the data to support the claim, acting as a bridge between the two concepts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Evidence is data and backing in the form of examples, statistics, and testimony that is used to support a claim. Evidence is vital in providing support, and without evidence or data, a speaker is left only with assertion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">An example is evidence that supports a claim by providing a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. The principal forms of examples are specific examples, hypothetical examples, and anecdotes. When selecting and evaluating examples, speakers should judge if the example is representative, if a sufficient number of examples have been provided to prove the argument, if negative examples have been accounted for, and if the examples have been expressed with sufficient detail and clarity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Statistics represent information in numeric form according to the size, quantity, or frequency of an idea, outcome, or occurrence. Four common forms of statistics are averages, raw numbers, trends, and polls. When selecting and evaluating statistics, pay attention to how an average was derived, observe the selection and size of a sample population, review margin of error or reliability for polling data, and consider the source and date of the statistics.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-bl0\">Testimony is facts or opinions derived from the words, experiences, and expertise of another individual. When selecting and evaluating testimony, speakers should use a qualified authority with clear expertise, firsthand knowledge of the topic, and a minimum of personal interest or bias. It is also important to understand the assumptions of testimony in order to be confident it is utilized in a fair and accurate manner.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nargument\r\naverage\r\nclaim\r\ndata\r\ndeductive reasoning\r\nenthymeme\r\nevidence\r\nexample\r\nhypothetical example\r\nmargin of error\r\nmean\r\nmedian\r\nmode\r\npolling data\r\nraw number\r\nsample size\r\nspecific example\r\nstatistics\r\nsyllogism\r\ntestimony\r\nToulmin model\r\ntrend statistic\r\nwarrant\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is an argument?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the primary parts of an argument according to the Toulmin model? What function does each element of argument serve?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the primary forms of evidence? What tests should you perform in evaluating the quality of each type?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is required to make a \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cquality\u201d argument? Why do people sometimes reject \u201cgood\u201d arguments?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the value of the Toulmin model?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Test your ability to identify arguments by analyzing an editorial from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Wall Street Journal<\/em><\/span> or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span>. First identify the thesis, the subclaims, the data, and the warrants. Second, identify what types of data (i.e., examples, statistics, testimony) are used. Third, assess the quality of the data to create an overall assessment of the editorial\u2014is it a good argument?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As you watch television or read a magazine, think about the advertisements. Are the advertisements arguments? Do some of them present a claim and data? How do they compare with the arguments you find in speeches and essays?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Construct sound arguments.<\/li>\n<li>Analyze arguments for their strengths and weaknesses.<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate common types of evidence to assess their quality.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Every day you make and encounter a variety of arguments. You might make an argument to your school\u2019s student government to start an esports club. On a video chat with your parents, you might present an argument for why they should purchase you a car for school or send (more) spending money. Later that night, your friends might seek to convince you that LeBron James, rather than Michael Jordan, is the best basketball player of all time.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image245.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"141.4px\" height=\"141.4px\" \/>We also routinely encounter arguments about important civic matters. We might read a letter in the newspaper by a school board member arguing why a local property tax increase is necessary to improve area schools. On news programs and in public speeches, we daily hear politicians and political operatives advance arguments about the best way to run the country.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">With so many different arguments competing for our adherence, how do we make decisions about personal matters, about what is best for our local community, and about what the nation should do on vital issues of the day?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">This chapter enables you to think carefully about logos. Logos is the logical or reasoned basis of an appeal (i.e., argumentation), and it is part of the rhetorical canon of invention (as explained in chapters 1 and 25). By learning more about argumentation, you will improve your ability to make sound decisions and critically analyze public options. You will also learn about speechmaking, since most speeches are based on a series of arguments. In this chapter, we examine two fundamental issues related to reasoning in public speaking: the structure of argument and the selection and evaluation of evidence.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Structure of Argument<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">argument<\/strong><\/span> is the advocacy of a belief, attitude, or course of action that is supported by evidence. An argument (or series of arguments) gives reasons why a listener should agree with the perspective being advocated. We begin by considering the development of what is known as the Toulmin model and some limitations to the practice of good reasoning.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"import-bh\"><strong>Box 26.1 Classical Reasoning<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_45\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-45\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-45\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10.png\" alt=\"Bust of Aristotle\" width=\"256\" height=\"326\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10-236x300.png 236w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10-65x83.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image10-225x287.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-45\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aristotle_transparent.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Aristotle<\/a> by Alvaro Marques Hijazo via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/zero\/1.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Aristotle advocated the syllogism as the proper form of argument.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Aristotle, Rhetoric (ed. J. H. Freese, 1926), Perseus Digital Library, https:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0060.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-1\" href=\"#footnote-500-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">syllogism<\/strong><\/span> is a three-step proposition that consists of two premises and a conclusion. If the premises are valid, then the conclusion must be true. This is also known as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">deductive reasoning<\/strong><\/span>, reasoning that moves from valid premises to a specific conclusion. The classic example of a syllogism is the following:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-ulf\" style=\"margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 0pt;\">All men are mortal. (major premise)<br \/>\nSocrates is a man. (minor premise)<br \/>\nTherefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">If the two premises can be proven true, then it follows that the conclusion <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">must<\/em><\/span> also be true. This is also the process of formal logic, which relies on the certainty of the offered premises to reach what is considered an unquestioned, or true, conclusion.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stephen Toulmin, The Uses of Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 122.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-2\" href=\"#footnote-500-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Syllogism is a valid argumentative form\u2014as is deductive reasoning generally. However, in regular conversation, we rarely have premises and conclusions that are accepted as absolutely true. Just as often, some premises are omitted from an argument. Observing such tendencies, Aristotle coined the enthymeme as a rhetorical syllogism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">enthymeme<\/strong><\/span> is an informal, incomplete syllogism in which a speaker relies on an audience to use its knowledge and experience to supply missing information that completes the argument. Take, for example, the underdeveloped argument, \u201cTax incentives for electric vehicles are justified because they will slow climate change.\u201d Its central, unstated premises include \u201ctax incentives influence consumer behavior\u201d and \u201cvehicle emissions contribute to climate change.\u201d The enthymeme expects listeners to supply the missing reasoning that completes the argument.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, these premises can also be debated or argued. Even if, as an audience member, we can supply a missing premise, we might still reject the argument. In this case, we might reject that \u201cvehicle emissions contribute to climate change\u201d or that the government should intervene in the free market. The contingent nature of premises in enthymemes allows for disagreement on public matters and policy decisions.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"John T. Gage, \u201cEnthymeme,\u201d in Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 223\u201325.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-3\" href=\"#footnote-500-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Exceptions and counterarguments to premises and conclusions result in complex arguments that defy categorization in classical syllogistic form.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">The Toulmin Model<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">In the 1950s, Stephen Toulmin developed an approach to reasoning that is accepted by many as the standard in argument studies.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Toulmin, Uses of Argument.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-4\" href=\"#footnote-500-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> This approach, popularly known as the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Toulmin model<\/strong><\/span>, provides a way to understand and critique arguments. In its full form, the model consists of as many as seven parts (see box 26.2); however, we primarily focus on its three most central components: claim, data, and warrant.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Claim<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">claim<\/strong><\/span> of an argument is what you are attempting to prove and want an audience to accept. Examples of claims include the following:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-paft\" style=\"padding-left: 40px;\">\u201cI should study chemistry this evening.\u201d<br \/>\n\u201cMy education will provide a good return on investment (ROI).\u201d<br \/>\n\u201cMy public speaking professor is the best.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image247.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"141.333333333333px\" height=\"141.333333333333px\" \/>Your thesis statement is the most important claim in your speech. For instance, in a persuasive speech, you might offer the thesis \u201cGreek organizations\u2019 new member recruitment should be improved.\u201d Each main point\u2014each reason for changing Greek recruitment\u2014is also a claim that supports your thesis. These are what we call <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">subclaims<\/em><\/span> because they are subordinate to the larger argument.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.2 The Toulmin Model<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Born in London, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId407\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Stephen Toulmin (1922\u20132009)<\/span><\/a><\/span> studied mathematics and physics before turning to philosophy and a focus on ethics, logic, and reasoning after World War II.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"William Grimes, \u201cStephen Toulmin, a Philosopher and Educator, Dies at 87,\u201d New York Times, December 11, 2009, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html; Toulmin, Uses of Argument, in particular chapter 3, \u201cThe Layout of Argument,\u201d 94\u2013145; Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, Argumentation and Critical Decision Making, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 91\u201397. We rely on Rieke, Sillars, and Peterson\u2019s explanation of the Toulmin model because it seems to best align with Toulmin\u2019s later views. See Gary A. Olson, \u201cLiterary Theory, Philosophy of Science, and Persuasive Discourse: Thoughts from a Neo-Premodernist,\u201d Journal of Advanced Composition 13, no. 2 (1993): 291, https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/20865918.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-5\" href=\"#footnote-500-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> While Toulmin authored several books and taught at multiple US institutions, he is best known for the model of argument that came to be identified with his name.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In his 1958 book <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The Uses of Argument<\/em><\/span>, Toulmin originally outlined an argument as consisting of six parts, but following the work of argumentation scholars Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, we offer the full model as containing seven elements:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Claim:<\/strong><\/span> The idea one is trying to prove and wants an audience to accept.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Data:<\/strong><\/span> Material or evidence that supports the acceptance of the claim. It answers the question \u201cWhy?\u201d or \u201cWhat have you got to go on?\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Warrant:<\/strong><\/span> A statement that justifies the connection between data and claim. The warrant is often implied and answers the question \u201cHow do you get there?\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Backing:<\/strong><\/span> More specific evidence that reinforces data or the warrant. It explains the data or warrant as being \u201cOn account of.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Qualifier:<\/strong><\/span> A term that modifies the strength or certainty of the claim such as \u201cmight,\u201d \u201cusually,\u201d or \u201calways.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Reservation:<\/strong><\/span> A condition or exception when the claim would not be advocated. A reservation is noted by terms like \u201cexcept\u201d or \u201cunless.\u201d<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rebuttal:<\/strong><\/span> A basis for challenging the validity of the claim.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Data<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A claim alone is not an argument. A claim offered without reason, support, or data is merely an assertion, a term previously introduced in chapter 5. An assertion fails to qualify as an argument because no reason is given for why it should be accepted. This is why <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">data<\/strong><\/span>, or material and reasons supporting the acceptance of the claim (also commonly called evidence), are essential in forming a valid argument. Note that \u201cdata\u201d here refers to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">all<\/em><\/span> types of evidence, not solely statistics and facts.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image248.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"127.666666666667px\" height=\"127.666666666667px\" \/>Data fill in the \u201cwhy\u201d or \u201cbecause\u201d for your claims. For your thesis that Greek organizations\u2019 new member recruitment should be improved, data could consist of the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>statistics on recent challenges to new member recruitment<\/li>\n<li>testimony about unfair recruitment practices<\/li>\n<li>examples of problems with the recruitment system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Each piece of information allows you to better support the claim and more convincingly persuade an audience to accept your argument. Data are typically found throughout your speech.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Warrant<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image249.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"131.933333333333px\" height=\"131.933333333333px\" \/>Finally, a valid argument rests upon an acceptable warrant. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">warrant<\/strong><\/span> provides justification for using the data to support the claim. In essence the warrant is a bridge, often in the form of a value statement, that connects the data with the claim, reinforcing their relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Warrants are typically implied rather than stated; however, at times it is important to state your warrant as well, particularly when an audience may not readily agree with the link between claim and data that you are otherwise asserting.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-bxf\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 0pt;\">Consider the following example to understand how a warrant functions:<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-bxulf\" style=\"padding-left: 120px;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Claim<\/em><\/span>: I should replace my old truck with a new hybrid vehicle<br \/>\n<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Data<\/em><\/span>: because hybrid vehicles produce significantly less environmental pollution.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-bx\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">The warrant wants to answer how we get from the data to the claim or explain what makes this data a reason to accept the claim.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-bxuls\" style=\"padding-left: 120px;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Warrant<\/em><\/span>: Reducing automotive emissions is environmentally responsible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-bx\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">It is likely that this warrant would be implied, relying on enthymematic reasons supplied by an audience. Presumably, the positive contribution to the environment is a strong enough incentive to cause the person making this argument to take action. However, there could be counterarguments or rebuttals that might cause this person to reject the claim (the cost of a new vehicle, for example). A more developed argument would consider these possibilities by providing <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">backing<\/em><\/span> for the warrant and\/or data in quantifying the environmental benefits.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.3 Visualizing the Toulmin Model<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Toulmin model provides a layout to visualize or diagram arguments.<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignleft wp-image-2590\"><img class=\"alignleft wp-image-2590\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data and claim on the top to warrant on the bottom.\" width=\"750\" height=\"279\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1.png 754w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1-300x111.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1-65x24.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1-225x84.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-a-1-350x130.png 350w\" \/><\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Example argument: I should replace my old truck with a new hybrid vehicle because hybrid vehicles produce significantly less environmental pollution.<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignleft wp-image-2589\"><img class=\"alignleft wp-image-2589\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-1024x334.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data (less pollution) and claim (should replace old vehicle with hybrid) on the top to warrant (reducing emission is environmentally responsible, implied) on the bottom.\" width=\"800\" height=\"261\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-1024x334.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-300x98.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-768x250.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-65x21.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-225x73.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1-350x114.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-2-Part-b-1.png 1308w\" \/><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The Toulmin model is more than a way of diagramming arguments\u2014it is a way of improving how you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">think<\/em><\/span> about arguments. It allows you to conceptualize and diagnose your own arguments and those produced by others. Putting an argument into the Toulmin form can allow you to<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>see what the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">claim<\/em><\/span> is and if it is reasonable;<\/li>\n<li>consider what the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">data<\/em><\/span> are, if there is enough, and the data\u2019s quality; and<\/li>\n<li>evaluate if there is a reasonable <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">warrant<\/em><\/span>, or one can be inferred, that connects the data and the claim.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">Because the model promotes clearer thinking about how we reason together, it is a way of enriching our civic engagement and the messages we send and receive about democratic participation.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Arguments and Their Limits<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Rhetorical arguments are powerful but inexact. Audiences can weigh arguments on public issues and come to significantly different conclusions about their merit. Such is the case in the difficult issue of abortion access as different people hold different views on the issue, and different states have vastly different laws.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Some audiences may also refuse to reason. As the example in box 26.4 illustrates, some appeals, urges, and habits overcome reason, and not all decision-makers weigh competing arguments the same way.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.4 Limitations on Arguments Against Smoking<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Think about this abbreviated (and asserted) causal argument: \u201cPeople should not smoke because scores of scientific studies have proven that smoking has significant adverse health effects, including death.\u201d In a Toulmin form, the argument would appear as follows:<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignright wp-image-2588 size-large\"><img class=\"alignright wp-image-2588 size-large\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-1024x378.png\" alt=\"T-shaped diagram connecting data (scientific studies about smoking health effects) and claim (people shouldn't smoke) on the top to warrant (we should not harm our bodies and staying alive is important, implied) on the bottom.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"378\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-1024x378.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-300x111.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-768x284.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-65x24.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-225x83.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1-350x129.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Chap-26-Box-3-1.png 1342w\" \/><\/div>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">A wealth of valid backing for this argument is available from the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId413\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C9BM-684J\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/span><\/a><\/span> and other sources. Yet many people who hear the strong evidence against it still smoke. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId414\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">American Cancer Society reports<\/span><\/a><\/span> that as of 2019, approximately thirty-four million people in the United States (14% of the population) smoke.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Sandy McDowell, \u201cSmoking Rates Historically Low, but Other Cancer-Related Behaviors Need Improvement,\u201d American Cancer Society, May 19, 2021, https:\/\/www.cancer.org\/research\/acs-research-news\/acs-report-smoking-rates-historically-low-but-other-cancer-related-behaviors-need-improvement.html, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-6\" href=\"#footnote-500-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> The reasons are no doubt varied, including value hierarchies that justify the decision to smoke, challenges to the evidence concerning the impacts of smoking, and the difficulty of kicking the habit.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Evidence and Its Evaluation<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Evidence<\/strong><\/span> is data and backing in the form of examples, statistics, and testimony that are used to support a claim. The key is finding not just any evidence but the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">best<\/em><\/span> evidence to support your argument. When you use weak evidence, your data will generally be insufficient to convince an audience of your argument\u2019s validity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">To discover strong evidence, begin by selecting credible sources using the guidance in chapter 8. Then draw from your sources to find and evaluate evidence. Use the instructions provided next for choosing examples, scrutinizing statistics, and selecting testimony.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Choosing Examples<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">example<\/strong><\/span> provides a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. An example seeks to make a claim tangible to an audience. Examples generally take one of three forms: specific, hypothetical, and anecdotes.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Specific Examples<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The most valuable type of example is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">specific example<\/strong><\/span>. A specific example is factual, one that has actually happened or is being experienced. A specific example prompts an audience to recognize that the claim (or a similar claim) has been demonstrated or proven true on a prior occasion.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.5 Specific Examples in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_300\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-300\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-300 size-full\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253.png\" alt=\"Bret Stephens\" width=\"256\" height=\"365\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253-210x300.png 210w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253-65x93.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image253-225x321.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-300\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:WSJPlus_Dallas_Event_Feb_2015_Photo_i034_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">[Bret Stephens]<\/a> by Grant Wickes via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId416\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2023 commencement address at the University of Chicago<\/span><\/a><\/span>, Bret Stephens, a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span> columnist and Chicago graduate, gave a speech that argued for the value of \u201cspeaking your mind when other people don\u2019t want you to.\u201d One way he supported his thesis was through the use of a series of specific examples in which conventional wisdom proved incorrect and it would have been beneficial to interrogate the ideas of allies or superiors, including the following:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Why were the economists and governors at the Federal Reserve so confident that interest rates could remain rock bottom for years without running a serious risk of inflation?\u2026Why were so few people on Wall Street betting against the housing market in 2007? Why were so many officials and highly qualified analysts so adamant that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction?\u2026and why did so many major polling firms fail to predict Donald Trump\u2019s victory in 2016?<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Bret Stephens, \u201cGo Forth and Argue,\u201d New York Times, June 2, 2023, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-7\" href=\"#footnote-500-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The effectiveness of Stephens\u2019s examples was in their succinct expression of a <strong>series of specific instances<\/strong> where most experts were ultimately proven incorrect and more dissenting voices would have been valuable.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Hypothetical Examples<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A less powerful but still useful type of example is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">hypothetical example<\/strong><\/span>. A hypothetical example is based on a plausible event or occurrence but does not represent a specific, actual instance. This sort of example allows an audience to visualize the claim, but it lacks the concrete data of a specific example.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.6 Hypothetical Examples in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_301\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-301\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-301\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254.png\" alt=\"Nikki Haley\" width=\"256\" height=\"372\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254-206x300.png 206w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254-65x94.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image254-225x327.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-301\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nikki_Haley_official_portrait.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Nikki Haley<\/a> by Renee Ittner-McManus via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In 2023 when former South Carolina governor and US ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId417\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">announced her intention to run for the 2024 Republican presidential nomination<\/span><\/a><\/span>, she spoke of her desire to create a country where \u201canyone can do anything and achieve their own American dream.\u201d To illustrate her claim, Haley pointed to a plausible range of American experiences, without naming any one individual in particular as possessing the experiences:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The college student who\u2019s paying too much and getting too little from her education. The young adult in his first real job wondering how he\u2019ll ever afford a mortgage or start a family. The single mom working two jobs and three times harder than anyone else.\u2026I\u2019m fighting for all of us because all of us have to be in this together.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d video,\u00a0NBC News, February 15, 2023, 20:50, https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-8\" href=\"#footnote-500-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Haley used <strong>hypothetical examples<\/strong> that allowed her audience to visualize themselves within the America she was seeking to lead.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Anecdotes<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, anecdotes, which we defined in chapter 11 as stories or extended examples in narrative form, are more elaborate examples that include additional detail. Often presented in the form of personal narratives, these examples seek a deeper connection with the audience. While powerful, these take time for a speaker to develop and present.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.7 Anecdotes in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>An effective illustration or personal narrative is again found in Nikki Haley\u2019s presidential campaign announcement. Three times in that speech Haley returned to her status as \u201cthe proud daughter of Indian immigrants\u201d to illustrate the relevance of her personal experience in leading \u201ca new generation\u201d of Americans \u201cinto the future.\u201d The extended example peaked near her conclusion where she underscored her experiences a final time. Speaking about the \u201ccountry\u2019s renewal,\u201d she shared:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>I\u2019m more confident than ever that we can make this vision real in our time because that\u2019s what I\u2019ve seen my entire life. As a brown girl growing up in a black and white world, I saw the promise of America unfold before me. As the proud wife of a combat veteran, I saw our people\u2019s deep love of freedom and our determination to defend it. As governor I saw our state move beyond hate and violence and lift up everyone in peace.\u2026The time has come to renew that spirit and rally our people. Our moment is now.\u2026Let\u2019s save our country\u2026and move forward together.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d 23:30.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-9\" href=\"#footnote-500-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Here Haley offers an <strong>illustration of her life experiences<\/strong> that is richer than any specific accomplishment she has had as a politician and provides insight into her life.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Not all examples are equal, and thus you must carefully evaluate their selection. A poor example fails to justify your claim and risks damaging your credibility and persuasiveness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Here are a few considerations (also found in box 26.15) that you should make when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating examples<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Is the example <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">representative<\/em><\/span>, or typical, of the broader situation or experience?<\/li>\n<li>Are a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">sufficient number<\/em><\/span> of examples used to prove the claim?<\/li>\n<li>Have negative examples (counterexamples) been <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">addressed<\/em><\/span>?<\/li>\n<li>Is the example <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">compelling<\/em><\/span> in its detail, clarity, and vividness?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Consider these questions when evaluating the strength of an example, though an example may not meet all of these standards and still be satisfactory.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.8 Examples as Evidence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>An example provides a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. It seeks to make a claim tangible to an audience. Examples generally take one of three forms.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Specific example:<\/strong><\/span> A specific example is factual, an example that has actually happened or is being experienced.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Hypothetical example:<\/strong><\/span> A hypothetical example is based on a plausible event or occurrence but does not represent a specific, actual instance.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Anecdote:<\/strong><\/span> Anecdotes, extended examples, or illustrations are more elaborate examples that contain additional detail.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Scrutinizing Statistics<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Statistics<\/strong><\/span>, a second common form of evidence, represent information in numeric form according to size, quantity, or frequency. In public speaking, statistics are most commonly used to demonstrate public opinion, capture common experiences and behaviors, and efficiently express the distribution and allocation of resources.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Speakers love statistics\u2014and with a little searching, it seems we can find a statistic for just about anything, from the number of pieces of mail processed and delivered every day by the US Postal Service (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId419\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">318 million<\/span><\/a><\/span>) to the percentage of people who believe in extraterrestrials (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId420\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">about 65% of adults in the United States<\/span><\/a><\/span>).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cPostal Facts: One Day in the Postal Service,\u201d United States Postal Service, https:\/\/facts.usps.com\/one-day\/, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7, accessed March 11, 2025; Courtney Kennedy and Arnold Lau, \u201cMost Americans Believe in Intelligent Life Beyond Earth; Few See UFOs as a Major National Security Threat,\u201d Pew Research Center, June 30, 2021, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2021\/06\/30\/most-americans-believe-in-intelligent-life-beyond-earth-few-see-ufos-as-a-major-national-security-threat\/, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-10\" href=\"#footnote-500-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Because statistics have an air of tangibility, appear to be exact, and seem authoritative, we too often accept them as true. In reality, statistics should be carefully scrutinized. As American author and satirist <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId421\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NFD4-4J5W\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Mark Twain is purported to have once said<\/span><\/a><\/span>, \u201cThere are lies, damned lies, and statistics.\u201d Nonetheless, statistics are a useful basis of proof in many speeches.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.9 Statistics in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_302\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-302\" style=\"width: 408px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-302\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255.png\" alt=\"Jerome Powell\" width=\"408\" height=\"333\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255.png 408w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255-300x245.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255-65x53.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255-225x184.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image255-350x286.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-302\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Governor_Powell_150209_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Governor Powell<\/a> by Federalreserve via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In his <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId422\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">April 3, 2024, remarks<\/span><\/a><\/span> at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, Federal Reserve Board Chairman Jerome H. Powell relied on statistics in advancing his case that the nation\u2019s economic outlook was continuing to improve after a period of stubbornly high inflation. Powell supported his contention by pointing to improvements in inflationary trends and continued job growth.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Specifically, Powell noted that inflation had slowed from an annual rate of 5.2% in the prior year to only 2.5% in the twelve-month period leading to February 2024.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Moreover, three million new jobs had been created in 2023 as inflation declined, and an average of 265,000 new jobs were added in the previous three months.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-sbo\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Due to such changes, the Federal Open Market Committee predicted continual, if \u201csometimes bumpy,\u201d progress toward the Fed\u2019s goal of 2% annual inflation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>These <strong>statistics<\/strong>, which reflect the use of raw numbers, trends, and averages, were some of the primary data offered by Powell as he addressed the overall health of the US economy.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jerome H. Powell, \u201cFireside Chat at the Stanford Business, Government, and Society Forum,\u201d Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, April 3, 2024, https:\/\/www.federalreserve.gov\/newsevents\/speech\/powell20240403a.htm, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-11\" href=\"#footnote-500-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Four of the most common forms of statistics called upon by public speakers are averages, raw numbers, trends, and polls.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Average<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">An <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">average<\/strong><\/span> is a common and seemingly benign statistic that is frequently used by speakers. In principle it represents what is typical\u2014what is average\u2014and in box 26.9, we see Federal Reserve Board Chair Powell making use of the average number of new jobs being added to the economy on a monthly basis\u2014265,000. However, an average may be more complicated than it initially appears because there are at least three methods for determining an average\u2014through mean, median, or mode.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The most common method for representing an average is the mean. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean<\/strong><\/span> is derived by summing all the data and dividing the total by the number of data points. The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">median<\/strong><\/span>, in contrast, is the data point that appears in the exact middle of a sample, and the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mode<\/strong><\/span> is the result number that appears most frequently.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.10 Limitations of Using the Mean to Find an Average<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Suppose you were leading a discussion about the low working wages available for college students seeking summer employment. A statistic you might find valuable is the amount earned by the average student worker in your class during the previous summer (this would be a small sample but a relevant one to your audience).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_303\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-303\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-303\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256.png\" alt=\"Three examples of bell curves with the three types of averages\" width=\"1024\" height=\"386\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256-300x113.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256-768x290.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256-65x25.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256-225x85.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image256-350x132.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-303\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Relationship_between_mean_and_median_under_different_skewness.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Diva Jain, via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you had access to all the financial data, you could determine the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean income<\/strong><\/span> by adding together the total dollars earned by your classmates and then dividing it by the number of student workers. If twenty-five students had combined wages of $150,000, the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">mean<\/em><\/span> student income was $6,000. Seems clear enough, right?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, what if you found that this included $50,000 earned by a single student in an astoundingly successful entrepreneurial venture? How does this change the average, and what does it do to the value, meaning, and accuracy of this statistic for your speech?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Raw Number<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A second common statistic is a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">raw number<\/strong><\/span>. In the student wages example in box 26.10, the raw number was $150,000 (the total wages earned). In box 26.9, Jerome Powell made use of a raw number as well\u2014three million jobs added in the previous year. We use raw numbers when we want to draw on the power of the magnitude of a number. An average may make a number seem small or insignificant, but by giving the entire scope of the data through a raw number, an audience may gain a better grasp of the situation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, the opposite may also be true: A raw number can make a problem look much worse than it actually is because it combines all the data into a single representation. Box 26.11 provides an example.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.11 Limitations of Using Only Raw Numbers<\/strong><\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignleft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image257.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"166.266666666667px\" height=\"166.266666666667px\" \/><\/div>\n<p>If you were to learn that the Biden administration proposed a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId426\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">$34 billion increase<\/span><\/a><\/span> (<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">a raw number<\/strong><\/span>) to the United States\u2019 2025 defense budget, you might be concerned about the seemingly large budget increase. However, if you also were provided with a <strong class=\"import-b\">trend statistic <\/strong>clarifying this represented a budget increase of only about 4.1%\u2014and that after accounting for inflation over the prior two years the spending power of the defense budget experienced a 3% decline\u2014you might perceive the raw number differently.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Michael E. O\u2019Hanlon and Alejandra Rocha, \u201cWhat\u2019s in Biden\u2019s $850-Billion Defense Budget Proposal?,\u201d Brookings Institution, March 15, 2024, https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/articles\/whats-in-bidens-850-billion-defense-budget-proposal\/, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-12\" href=\"#footnote-500-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Trend Statistic<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When a speaker wants to demonstrate a change that has occurred over a period of time, the statistic that is most often used is called a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">trend<\/em><\/span>. A <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">trend statistic<\/strong><\/span> emphasizes change in a clear and meaningful way by providing two points of comparison. As the Powell example in box 26.9 demonstrates, trend statistics are important to economists. Trend statistics for inflation, gross domestic product, unemployment, and interest rates can provide a more focused and efficient evaluation of the immediate economic climate.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Polling Data<\/h3>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image258.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"138.8px\" height=\"138.8px\" \/><\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, perhaps the most popular type of statistic is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">polling data<\/strong><\/span>. A valid, scientific poll measures the opinions or beliefs of a large group of people by collecting data from a representative random sample that is similar in its demographics to the rest of the population and then generalizes the results.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Polling data is collected on a variety of topics, ranging from whom one intends to vote for in a presidential election to what is the best movie ever made. One of the oldest and most recognized polling researchers is Gallup, a global analytics firm that has measured public opinion for nearly a century. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId428\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/9ZXW-MW5F\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Gallup regularly tracks opinions on various topics<\/span><\/a><\/span>, such as consumer confidence, presidential approval, and the future of Medicare and Social Security. While polling data must be carefully analyzed, it is valuable in giving your audience an indication of what a larger public thinks. That is, while the majority may not always be right, their opinion can be influential.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, not all polls are equally valid, and in selecting polling data, there are several items you should consider:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>In particular, you should verify that the poll is based on a <em>representative random sample<\/em>. This can be determined by examining how the poll was conducted\u2014who was polled, how they were polled, how many people were polled, when they were polled\u2014and what the margin of error is. The <strong>margin of error<\/strong> is the uncertainty or potential variation in a polling result. It reflects the sampling error or margin in which there is less confidence about the accuracy of the survey result.<\/li>\n<li>Also, be careful how you use <em>nonscientific internet polling<\/em> that asks website visitors their opinion on an issue. Such polls have a selection bias in terms of who chooses to take the poll. For example, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">Athletic<\/em><\/span>\u2019s daily sports newsletter, \u201cThe Pulse,\u201d periodically gives sports fans the opportunity to express their opinion on various sports-related issues and events. Such polls are interesting to sports fans and do show something of popular opinion, but be mindful that the results are not statistically valid.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.12 The American Freshman<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId429\" href=\"https:\/\/heri.ucla.edu\/cirp-freshman-survey\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">The Cooperative Institutional Research Program (<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">CIRP<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">) Freshman Survey<\/span><\/a><\/span>, administered by the Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, is taken by tens of thousands of first-time full-time college students each fall. In 2019, 126,642 new students from 178 four-year schools participated in the survey. Ninety-five thousand of those students from 148 institutions were included in the normative data that was reported. Among the results are the following:<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2019,\u201d Higher Education Research Institute, https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2015,\u201d Higher Education Research Institute, https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2012,\u201d Higher Education Research Institute, https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-13\" href=\"#footnote-500-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Getting a better job was identified as a \u201cvery important\u201d reason to attend college by 83.5% of respondents.<\/li>\n<li>Making more money was named as a \u201cvery important\u201d reason to attend college by 73.2% of respondents.<\/li>\n<li>A personal goal of being well-off financially was indicated by 84.3% of respondents.<\/li>\n<li>A significant portion of respondents, specifically 43.6%, perceived themselves as \u201cmiddle-of-the-road\u201d politically.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Issue<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId430\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2019 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId431\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2015 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId432\" href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2012 Respondents<\/span><\/a><\/span> Indicating Agree Strongly or Agree Somewhat<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Abortion should be legal.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">73.1%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">63.6%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">61.1%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Students from disadvantaged social backgrounds should be given preferential treatment in college admissions.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">52.3%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">41.9%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Racial discrimination is no longer a major problem in America.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">18.6%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">23%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Same-sex couples should have the right to legal marital status.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">81.1%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">75%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Colleges have the right to ban extreme speakers from campus.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">51%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">43.2%<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">X<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<ul>\n<li>What other information would you want to know about the data before deciding whether to use it?<\/li>\n<li>How useful might this information be to a speaker planning a presentation on a related topic?<\/li>\n<li>How might the information be misused or overgeneralized?<\/li>\n<li>What information do these results leave out?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In sum, it is crucial that you carefully scrutinize statistics. You should closely consider how a statistic was derived so you have a good grasp of its validity. It is ethically suspect to simply report a number without some understanding of how it was derived. Similarly, as a listener, be skeptical of statistics presented without enough information or context to evaluate their credibility. A statistical conclusion is only as good as the method used to arrive at it. For that reason, here are a few questions (also in box 26.15) you should ask when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating statistics<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>If the number is an average, is it <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">the mean, the median, or the mode<\/em><\/span>? Is it representative of the data, or is it skewed by an extreme data point?<\/li>\n<li>What was the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-bi\"><em>sample size<\/em><\/strong><\/span>: the number of people used to determine the average or polled?<\/li>\n<li>If using polling data, what is the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em>margin of error<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">or reliability<\/em><\/span>? Polls that have a margin of error greater than a few percentage points are suspect, particularly if the margin of error is greater than the difference between the polling result options.<\/li>\n<li>What do you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\">know<\/span> about the <em>sample<\/em>? Was it randomly selected? Are there factors about the sample population (age, gender, geography, etc.) that make the data suspect?<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">When<\/em><\/span> was the data collected? Public opinion, averages, and raw numbers can change with time.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.13 Statistics as Evidence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A statistic represents information in numeric form according to size, quantity, or frequency. A statistic has an aura of certainty and exactness while being able to efficiently express public opinion, capture common experiences, or show the scope of an issue. Statistics may be expressed in several forms.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Raw number:<\/strong><\/span> A single number or figure that captures the breadth of an occurrence.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Trend statistic:<\/strong><\/span> A trend statistic represents meaning over a specific period of time.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Polling data:<\/strong><\/span> Polling data seeks to represent the opinions or beliefs of a large group of people by collecting data from a representative random sample.<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Average:<\/strong><\/span> An average seeks to numerically represent what is a typical or common experience. An average may be derived in three different ways.\n<ul>\n<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mean<\/strong><\/span> is calculated by adding together all the data and dividing the sum by the total number of data points. Within the mean might be outliers\u2014experiences that are either much larger or much smaller than what is typical.<\/li>\n<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">median<\/strong><\/span> seeks to compensate for outliers by representing the data point that is in the exact middle of the sample; it is the middle result from among all of the data points.<\/li>\n<li>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">mode<\/strong><\/span> is the data point that appears most frequently in the sample.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\">Selecting Testimony<\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Testimony is a third common form of evidence that serves as data and backing for arguments. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Testimony<\/strong><\/span> is facts or opinions drawn from the words, experiences, and expertise of another individual. Testimony is used to supplement our own opinions and experiences.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Testimony should come from authoritative sources on an issue. In chapter 8, we recognized three types of source authorities. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Subject<\/em><\/span> authorities are sources with trained expertise on the topic. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Societal<\/em><\/span> authority emphasizes a source\u2019s power to control outcomes based on their position within a society or organization. Authority can also be accrued through <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">special experiences<\/em><\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Suppose you are giving a speech on US immigration from Venezuela. You may have sensible ideas, but your audience is unlikely to accept your opinions alone. Instead, you should build your credibility by supplying well-informed testimony as data for your claims. Perhaps you could draw on testimony from the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">subject authorities<\/em><\/span> such as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId433\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2BX-6GXC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Dr. Christopher Salas-Wright<\/span><\/a><\/span>, whose research focuses on Latin American migrants<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">societal authorities<\/em><\/span> such as the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId434\" href=\"https:\/\/www.migrationpolicy.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Migration Policy Institute<\/span><\/a><\/span>, a nonpartisan nonprofit organization<\/li>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">authorities from special circumstances<\/em><\/span> like a Venezuelan who immigrated to the United States<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Testimony from such figures about the wisdom of your proposal would significantly aid the power of your argument.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Effective testimony provides explanation and analysis. Make clear how and why the source is authoritative on the issue. Then offer a sufficient amount of testimony to make the evidence compelling. For example, saying that an economic analyst declared \u201cThe current economic recovery will not continue\u201d <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">does<\/em> <em class=\"import-i\">n<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">o<\/em><em class=\"import-i\">t say much<\/em><\/span>. The testimony fails to provide an explanation or analysis for <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">why<\/em><\/span> this perspective is justified.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 26.14 Testimony in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_306\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-306\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-306\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259.png\" alt=\"Eric Holder speaking at a podium\" width=\"256\" height=\"359\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259-214x300.png 214w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259-65x91.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image259-225x316.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-306\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Attorney_General_Holder_Addresses_the_EDNY_(15548138890).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Attorney General Holder<\/a> by Douglas Palmer via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In a 2011 speech on voter registration and rights, then\u2013Attorney General Eric Holder used testimony to support his contention that voting rights are important and in need of attention.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Near the start of his address, Holder quoted former <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId436\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/H538-LHKK\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">President Lyndon B. Johnson<\/span><\/a><\/span> as saying, \u201cThe right to vote is the basic right, without which all others are meaningless.\u201d Holder drew from Johnson\u2019s authority as the president who in 1965 signed the Voting Rights Act into law.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In turn, to establish that there was a threat to this essential right, Holder drew from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId437\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/H85Q-HSMJ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">US Congressman John Lewis<\/span><\/a><\/span>, a civil rights leader from the 1960s with firsthand knowledge and experience of the struggles over voter registration and voting rights. Holder quoted Lewis to supply testimony that voting rights are \u201cunder attack\u2026[by] a deliberate and systematic attempt to prevent millions of elderly voters, young voters, students, [and] minority and low-income voters from exercising their constitutional right to engage in the democratic pro[cess].\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"All quotes from Eric Holder, \u201cAttorney General Eric Holder Speaks at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library &amp; Museum&quot; (transcript, Austin, TX, December 13, 2011), U.S. Department of Justice Archives, https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archives\/opa\/speech\/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-lyndon-baines-johnson-library-museum, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/J5AQ-2X5J.\" id=\"return-footnote-500-14\" href=\"#footnote-500-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this way Attorney General Holder, himself a credible source based on his title and position, enhanced his argument through the use of <strong>testimony<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As with the other forms of evidence, there are some considerations to make (also in box 26.15) when <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">selecting and evaluating testimony<\/em><\/span>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Is the source a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">qualified<\/em><\/span> authority due to their subject expertise, societal position, or special circumstances? The testimony will strengthen your speech only if the source can truly add insight based on their status as a qualified authority on the topic being addressed.<\/li>\n<li>Does the source have <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">firsthand knowledge<\/em><\/span> of the issue? Ideally, the testimony is based on experience rather than opinion, and the source has had close dealings with the issues you are addressing.<\/li>\n<li>Does the source have <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">excessive personal interest<\/em><\/span> in the issue? A conflict of interest might overly bias the source\u2019s testimony.<\/li>\n<li>What <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">assumptions<\/em><\/span> are made in the testimony? Consider what the source assumed when they made the comments and consider whether those assumptions are consistent with your own assumptions and argument.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Examples, statistics, and testimony are necessary components of valid arguments as they provide the substance used to demonstrate claims. Effective speakers use all three types of evidence in their presentations. Box 26.15 summarizes useful guidelines for selecting and evaluating examples, statistics, and testimony as you build and listen to speeches and arguments.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Box 26.15 Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Evidence<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr style=\"height: 29.65pt;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Universal Criteria<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Examples<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Statistics<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Using Testimony<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 29.65pt;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence relevant?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence recent?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the evidence credible?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the evidence contain bias?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the evidence provide explanation and analysis?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the certainty of the evidence?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the example representative?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Are there a sufficient number of examples?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Have negative examples been addressed?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Are the examples compelling in their detail and clarity?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">How was the average arrived at?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the sample size?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is the margin of error or reliability of the poll?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">What is known about the sample?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">When was the data collected?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Is the source a qualified authority?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the source have firsthand knowledge?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Does the source have excessive personal interest or bias?<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-tdul\">Have assumptions in the testimony been accounted for?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Arguments form the basis of decisions we make daily; thus, the ability to produce high-quality arguments is of vital concern to public speaking and civic participation. In this chapter you have learned the fundamental elements of argument and how to support them.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-blf\">An argument is the advocacy of a belief, attitude, or course of action that is supported by evidence. An argument (or series of arguments) gives listeners reasons for adopting or agreeing with the perspective advocated.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">The Toulmin model of argument is a seven-part model that provides a way to conceptualize, verify, and critique arguments so that one can more effectively understand and evaluate public arguments.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">The central elements of the Toulmin model are claim, data, and warrant. The claim of an argument is what the speaker seeks to prove and wants an audience to accept. Data are material and reasons that support the acceptance of the claim. The warrant provides the justification for using the data to support the claim, acting as a bridge between the two concepts.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Evidence is data and backing in the form of examples, statistics, and testimony that is used to support a claim. Evidence is vital in providing support, and without evidence or data, a speaker is left only with assertion.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">An example is evidence that supports a claim by providing a concrete instance in the form of a fact or occurrence. The principal forms of examples are specific examples, hypothetical examples, and anecdotes. When selecting and evaluating examples, speakers should judge if the example is representative, if a sufficient number of examples have been provided to prove the argument, if negative examples have been accounted for, and if the examples have been expressed with sufficient detail and clarity.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Statistics represent information in numeric form according to the size, quantity, or frequency of an idea, outcome, or occurrence. Four common forms of statistics are averages, raw numbers, trends, and polls. When selecting and evaluating statistics, pay attention to how an average was derived, observe the selection and size of a sample population, review margin of error or reliability for polling data, and consider the source and date of the statistics.<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-bl0\">Testimony is facts or opinions derived from the words, experiences, and expertise of another individual. When selecting and evaluating testimony, speakers should use a qualified authority with clear expertise, firsthand knowledge of the topic, and a minimum of personal interest or bias. It is also important to understand the assumptions of testimony in order to be confident it is utilized in a fair and accurate manner.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>argument<br \/>\naverage<br \/>\nclaim<br \/>\ndata<br \/>\ndeductive reasoning<br \/>\nenthymeme<br \/>\nevidence<br \/>\nexample<br \/>\nhypothetical example<br \/>\nmargin of error<br \/>\nmean<br \/>\nmedian<br \/>\nmode<br \/>\npolling data<br \/>\nraw number<br \/>\nsample size<br \/>\nspecific example<br \/>\nstatistics<br \/>\nsyllogism<br \/>\ntestimony<br \/>\nToulmin model<br \/>\ntrend statistic<br \/>\nwarrant<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is an argument?<\/li>\n<li>What are the primary parts of an argument according to the Toulmin model? What function does each element of argument serve?<\/li>\n<li>What are the primary forms of evidence? What tests should you perform in evaluating the quality of each type?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is required to make a \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cquality\u201d argument? Why do people sometimes reject \u201cgood\u201d arguments?<\/li>\n<li>What is the value of the Toulmin model?<\/li>\n<li>Test your ability to identify arguments by analyzing an editorial from <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">Wall Street Journal<\/em><\/span> or <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">The<\/em><\/span> <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em><\/span>. First identify the thesis, the subclaims, the data, and the warrants. Second, identify what types of data (i.e., examples, statistics, testimony) are used. Third, assess the quality of the data to create an overall assessment of the editorial\u2014is it a good argument?<\/li>\n<li>As you watch television or read a magazine, think about the advertisements. Are the advertisements arguments? Do some of them present a claim and data? How do they compare with the arguments you find in speeches and essays?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-500-1\">Aristotle, <em>Rhetoric<\/em> (ed. J. H. Freese, 1926), <em>Perseus Digital Library<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0060\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0060<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-2\">Stephen Toulmin, <em>The Uses of Argument<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 122. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-3\">John T. Gage, \u201cEnthymeme,\u201d in E<em>ncyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age<\/em>, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 223\u201325. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-4\">Toulmin, <em>Uses of Argument<\/em>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-5\">William Grimes, \u201cStephen Toulmin, a Philosopher and Educator, Dies at 87,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, December 11, 2009, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2009\/12\/11\/education\/11toulmin.html<\/a>; Toulmin, <em>Uses of Argument<\/em>, in particular chapter 3, \u201cThe Layout of Argument,\u201d 94\u2013145; Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, <em>Argumentation and Critical Decision Making<\/em>, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 91\u201397. We rely on Rieke, Sillars, and Peterson\u2019s explanation of the Toulmin model because it seems to best align with Toulmin\u2019s later views. See Gary A. Olson, \u201cLiterary Theory, Philosophy of Science, and Persuasive Discourse: Thoughts from a Neo-Premodernist,\u201d <em>Journal of Advanced Composition<\/em> 13, no. 2 (1993): 291, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/20865918\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/20865918<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-6\">Sandy McDowell, \u201cSmoking Rates Historically Low, but Other Cancer-Related Behaviors Need Improvement,\u201d <em>American Cancer Society<\/em>, May 19, 2021, https:\/\/www.cancer.org\/research\/acs-research-news\/acs-report-smoking-rates-historically-low-but-other-cancer-related-behaviors-need-improvement.html, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/MKN4-PM63<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-7\">Bret Stephens, \u201cGo Forth and Argue,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, June 2, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/06\/02\/opinion\/free-speech-campus.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-8\">\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d video,\u00a0<em>NBC News<\/em>, February 15, 2023, 20:50, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/video\/watch-nikki-haley-s-full-speech-announcing-presidential-run-163418181896<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-9\">\u201cWatch Nikki Haley\u2019s Full Speech Announcing Presidential Run,\u201d 23:30. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-10\">\u201cPostal Facts: One Day in the Postal Service,\u201d United States Postal Service, https:\/\/facts.usps.com\/one-day\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/Y3X4-CKY7<\/a>, accessed March 11, 2025; Courtney Kennedy and Arnold Lau, \u201cMost Americans Believe in Intelligent Life Beyond Earth; Few See UFOs as a Major National Security Threat,\u201d <em>Pew Research Center<\/em>, June 30, 2021, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2021\/06\/30\/most-americans-believe-in-intelligent-life-beyond-earth-few-see-ufos-as-a-major-national-security-threat\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/PU2V-PERC<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-11\">Jerome H. Powell, \u201cFireside Chat at the Stanford Business, Government, and Society Forum,\u201d Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, April 3, 2024, https:\/\/www.federalreserve.gov\/newsevents\/speech\/powell20240403a.htm, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/NM3G-VGTW<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-12\">Michael E. O\u2019Hanlon and Alejandra Rocha, \u201cWhat\u2019s in Biden\u2019s $850-Billion Defense Budget Proposal?,\u201d <em>Brookings Institution<\/em>, March 15, 2024, https:\/\/www.brookings.edu\/articles\/whats-in-bidens-850-billion-defense-budget-proposal\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/UH3P-8P92<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-13\">\u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2019,\u201d <em>Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2019.pdf<\/a>; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2015,\u201d <em>Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2015-Expanded.pdf<\/a>; \u201cThe American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2012<em>,\u201d Higher Education Research Institute<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.heri.ucla.edu\/monographs\/TheAmericanFreshman2012.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-500-14\">All quotes from Eric Holder, \u201cAttorney General Eric Holder Speaks at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library &amp; Museum\" (transcript, Austin, TX, December 13, 2011), <em>U.S. Department of Justice Archives<\/em>, https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archives\/opa\/speech\/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-lyndon-baines-johnson-library-museum, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J5AQ-2X5J\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/J5AQ-2X5J<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-500-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":26,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/500"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":59,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/500\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3296,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/500\/revisions\/3296"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/500\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=500"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=500"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=500"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=500"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}