{"id":458,"date":"2025-05-26T16:56:23","date_gmt":"2025-05-26T16:56:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=458"},"modified":"2025-09-07T13:19:23","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T13:19:23","slug":"the-ethics-of-public-speaking","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/chapter\/the-ethics-of-public-speaking\/","title":{"raw":"The Ethics of Public Speaking","rendered":"The Ethics of Public Speaking"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the meaning of ethics and ethical codes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Complete the ethical responsibilities of preparing to speak in public.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practice the ethical communication behaviors expected of public discourse.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">When preparing for a speaking occasion, you might be tempted to seek guidance and inspiration from past examples. Examining others\u2019 speeches might uncover an ingenious theme, identify a clever reference, or clarify \u201cwhat not to do.\u201d Take a few notes from this speech, \u201ccopy and paste\u201d a paragraph from another, venture into ChatGPT or Gemini to brainstorm topics and organize themes, and before you know it, you have a page or two of promising ideas. However, what is the difference between cultivating ideas based on other speeches and plagiarizing their content?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">With so much information available at our fingertips, it is easy to commit an ethical misstep\u2014whether due to being willfully deceptive, using unauthorized generative AI assistance, taking imprecise notes, and\/or failing to attribute critical information. Such transgressions\u2014and their consequences\u2014explain why ethics is an important, and occasionally confusing, concern for public speaking.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We admit ethical questions are not always easy to answer. However, we also hold that there are recognized ethical practices that should govern our speaking and listening behaviors. In this chapter, we consider ethics in three dimensions: the relationship of ethics and rhetorical ethics, the ethics of speech preparation, and the ethics of speech performance.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Ethics and Rhetorical Ethics<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Generally associated with the field of philosophy, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethics<\/strong><\/span> refers to a set of moral principles governing human conduct as it pertains to motives, ends, and the quality of one\u2019s actions. The ethical quality of conduct is generally evaluated based on how it reflects what is deemed \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad,\u201d or \u201cright\u201d or \u201cwrong,\u201d in a culture. We frequently use criteria such as honesty, morality, equality, and justice that are derived from culture, religion, upbringing, and community and institutional contexts to judge the ethics of a behavior.[footnote]Richard Johannesen, \u201cEthics,\u201d in <em>The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition<\/em>, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 235.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Ethical Codes<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A more specific articulation of ethics is an <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical code<\/strong><\/span>, a set of rules or guidelines agreed to by a culture or group to regulate behavior. For instance, the American Medical Association (AMA) has a \u201c<a class=\"rId86\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Code of Medical Ethics<\/span><\/a>\u201d that is recognized as the \u201cmost comprehensive ethics guide for physicians.\u201d With medical advances and changing legal guidance, the code is subject to reflection and debate. For instance, euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, abortion and some assisted reproductive technologies, and genetic testing and stem cell research present thorny dilemmas. However, the code provides physicians with principles to guide their professional conduct.[footnote]\u201cCode of Medical Ethics,\u201d American Medical Association, https:\/\/code-medical-ethics.ama-assn.org\/, archived February 23, 2025, at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">College communities also typically have their own code of ethics, such as a university\u2019s \u201crule of conduct\u201d that governs student behavior and academic honesty. Common to such policies is a prohibition on cheating and plagiarism, including copying others\u2019 work, wrongly taking credit for others\u2019 words and ideas by failing to supply necessary attribution, and engaging in additional prohibited activities. You are probably familiar with the meaning of academic honesty at your institution\u2014and if you are not, you should be. While such codes provide guidance to students, inevitably there are debates over their interpretation and enforcement. Perhaps you can point to important debates and discussions about your institution\u2019s code of conduct or policies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2526\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"250\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-2526\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Virginia_Military_Institue.jpg\" alt=\"Virginia Military Institute building exterior.\" width=\"250\" height=\"281\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Virginia_Military_Institute#\/media\/File:Virginia_Military_Institue.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Virginia Military Institute<\/a> by National Park Service via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId88\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Virginia Military Institute\u2019s (<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">VMI<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">) honor system<\/span><\/a><\/span> is one of the most historic ethical codes in higher education. At the heart of its system is the principle that cadets are \u201cmen and women of honor and integrity who can always be trusted\u201d to follow their succinct code: \u201cA Cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, nor tolerate those who do.\u201d[footnote]\u201cHonor System,\u201d Virginia Military Institute, https:\/\/www.vmi.edu\/cadet-life\/cadet-leadership-and-development\/honor-system\/, archived February 23, 2025, at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5.<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The difficulty in identifying a singular, universal ethical code is that individuals and communities have different worldviews, experiences, and values. Behavior that is accepted and expected in one community may be out of bounds in another. Actions we would dismiss as unethical in the abstract\u2014lying, for instance\u2014might be more complicated when put into specific contexts. The point is that ethical standards are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">community standards<\/strong><\/span>, and thus, we can expect disagreements about their meaning. However, that does not mean all actions are acceptable, only that ethical evaluations are based on many factors.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Rhetorical Ethics<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image37.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"131.133333333333px\" height=\"131.133333333333px\" \/>While no single widely known code of rhetorical ethics exists on the level of the AMA\u2019s \u201cCode of Medical Ethics,\u201d we can identify communication behaviors that are deemed acceptable and unacceptable. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rhetorical ethics<\/strong><\/span>, or the ethics of public speaking, refers to how we expect speakers and audience members to behave and interact as they communicate about matters of the public good. To that end, rhetoric scholar James Herrick identifies a set of ethical goods inherent across the history of rhetorical practice:<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px;\">(1) discovering truths and arguments relevant to decision-making on contingent issues,\r\n(2) advocating, interpreting and propagating ideas before publics, and\r\n(3) testing propositions in debate.[footnote]James A. Herrick, \u201cRhetoric, Ethics, and Virtue,\u201d <em>Communication Studies<\/em> 43 (1992): 139, 144-45, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10510979209368367\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10510979209368367<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">When you, as a speaker, adhere to these practices, you enrich our public discourse. Moreover, you embody ethical rhetoric and reflect the qualities of productive discourse discussed in chapter 3.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We contend that rhetorical ethics involves the preparation of public speakers, the actions of speakers in presenting information, and as the next chapter explores, the listening behaviors of audiences.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Ethics of Speech Preparation<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Rhetorical ethics begins with the speech preparation process. This includes the commitment a speaker shows to an audience as well as the ethical choices made in the selection of information. While the next section on speech performance discusses the latter topic, here we consider speech preparation as an ethical demand.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.1 The Deceptively Hard Work of Speech Preparation<\/strong>\r\n\r\nWhen done well, public speaking looks deceptively easy\u2014it is \u201cjust talking,\u201d after all. Few people fully appreciate how difficult it is to craft a successful presentation\u2014the time it takes to develop the main idea, do the research, choose the language and tone, practice the delivery, and so forth. In fact, one might say we are trained to <em class=\"import-i\">not<\/em> notice these efforts.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_569\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"128\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-569\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image38-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"128\" height=\"185\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Denzel_Washington_2018.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Denzel Washington<\/a> by MTV UK via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Few football coaches give the sort of refined inspirational speech offered by Denzel Washington\u2019s Coach Boone on the field of Gettysburg in <em class=\"import-i\">Remember the Titans<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_570\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"128\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-570\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image39-1.png\" alt=\"America Ferrera\" width=\"128\" height=\"170\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:America_Ferrera_BFI081223_(53389386439).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">America Ferrera<\/a> by Raph_PH via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Few people can offer the type of on-the-spot\u2014and spot-on\u2014social commentary delivered by <a class=\"rId92\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">America Ferrera\u2019s Gloria in <\/span><em class=\"import-url-i\">Barbie<\/em><\/a> as she recited the double bind of femininity and the crushing expectations of being a woman in contemporary society.[footnote]HBO Max, \u201cAmerica Ferrera's Iconic Barbie Speech,\u201d posted December 22, 2023, YouTube, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When attending public lectures on your college campus, you probably have noticed that many speakers rely extensively on PowerPoint presentations or even use a full manuscript. You are justified in desiring more engagement from such speakers. But an expert\u2019s reliance on their text reflects just how difficult public speaking can be, particularly when specific terminology is important. The point is that preparing a speech is hard work. America Ferrera and Denzel Washington are effective actors because they have honed their craft over many years.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Even nonactors like the late Steve Jobs, cofounder and chief executive officer of Apple, achieve speaking success, in part, due to their extensive preparation. Before his death, Jobs was a highly anticipated and captivating business speaker, and his \u201ctech talks\u201d were \u201cmust-see TV\u201d for computer geeks and investors alike as he introduced new products and updates.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_571\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"248\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-571\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image40-1.png\" alt=\"Steve Jobs speaking\" width=\"248\" height=\"283\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Steve_Jobs_Speaks_At_WWDC07_(541334636).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steve Jobs<\/a> by Ben Stanfield via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><a class=\"rId94\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VQKMoT-6XSg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Watching Jobs<\/span><\/a>, one might note his easy extemporaneous style, his eye contact, the engaging gestures, and the integration of his content with his visual aids. Although he tended to pace, it fit the persona he developed. In his appearances at the Macworld Expo, for example, Jobs appeared casual and relaxed, perhaps giving the impression that he had not prepared very much or was not trying very hard. On the contrary, this was part of the appearance Jobs worked diligently to cultivate. We are not suggesting that the accolades Jobs received as a speaker were unwarranted. Instead, they were achieved after a significant investment of time and effort.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Mike Evangelist, a former associate of Jobs at Apple, explained that Steve Jobs started preparing for his keynote addresses weeks in advance, not just developing his speech, but also reviewing all the products and technologies that might be relevant. Evangelist says that Jobs would go through multiple dress rehearsals that focused on every conceivable element with \u201cno detail\u2026overlooked.\u201d[footnote]Mike Evangelist, \u201cBehind the Magic Curtain,\u201d <em>The Guardian<\/em>, January 5, 2006, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2006\/jan\/05\/newmedia.media1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2006\/jan\/05\/newmedia.media1<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">What effective public speakers and performers have in common is that they take their development of public discourse\u2014their speeches, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">their work<\/em><\/span>\u2014very seriously. They are responsible to their audience; they are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">ethical<\/em><\/span> in their preparation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The idea that speech preparation is not only important but also an ethical demand for speakers was well explained by Professor W. Norwood Brigance in a public speaking textbook chapter entitled \u201cFour Fundamentals for Speakers.\u201d[footnote]William Norwood Brigance, <em>Speech: Its Techniques and Disciplines in a Free Society<\/em> (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952), 16\u201324.[\/footnote] In his direct and challenging style, Brigance made clear how much work is required of public speakers: \u201cEffective public speaking is a technique, as definitely as are the techniques of designing airplanes and removing appendixes, except that it is older and more complex than either.\u201d[footnote]Brigance, <em>Speech<\/em>, 16.[\/footnote] How can Brigance claim that public speaking is more complex than the precise calculations required to keep an aircraft in flight or the delicate movements necessary in surgery? His point is that there is not a single rote method for speechmaking, nor is there an equation available to guarantee success. With so many human factors and variables, public speaking requires constant revision and adaptation along with sustained attention to its preparation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.2 Ethical Preparation<\/strong>\r\n\r\nElements of ethical preparation are addressed across this book, including instruction on research, reasoning, outlining, and delivery. Some of the more important practices that demonstrate ethical preparation for your public presentations include the following:\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Advanced planning<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Begin working on your speech well in advance of its due date: at least one week, and longer for lengthier and more significant presentations.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Information selection<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Research your ideas and select your supporting material carefully.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Note-taking<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Take careful notes while researching in order to keep track of sources, catalog internet URLs, and properly attribute information.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\"><strong>Revision and refinement<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Engage in revision and refine your ideas as you develop the presentation.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Practice<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Practice your presentation multiple times before giving it to a public audience.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\"><strong>Responsibility and respectfulness<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Make your message meaningful to your audience out of respect for their time.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Another Brigance maxim to which we subscribe is his belief that a speaker \u201cmust earn the right to give every speech.\u201d[footnote]Brigance, <em>Speech<\/em>, 23.[\/footnote] While many people \u201clike to talk\u201d or \u201clike to debate,\u201d they overlook the responsibility that comes with the opportunity. When you are given a chance to speak, it comes with a corresponding ethical responsibility to take the occasion seriously and to come prepared with something meaningful to share. See box 5.2 for advice on practices important to ethical speech preparation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Ethics of Speech Performance<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Every so often, we learn that a high-profile speaker unethically took another person\u2019s ideas. Perhaps you know of such an example. But why does it matter if the speaker did not invent their speech? Does it really change how an audience should understand and respond to the rhetoric? Yes, it very well might. In this section we examine the ethics of public influence and five ethical practices important to public communication.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>The Ethics of Public Influence<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Perhaps <em class=\"import-i\">the<\/em> central reason rhetorical ethics is important is that audiences make decisions based on the public discourse they hear. We form judgments based on listening to commencement speakers, reading a trusted information source on the internet, and even when making travel decisions after seeing a forecast from the local meteorologist. <img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image41.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"138.8px\" height=\"138.8px\" \/>In each case, rhetors communicate information the public uses in decision-making: How can I best contribute to society? Which candidate should I vote for? What can I do about environmental problems in my community? Is it safe to travel today? Public rhetoric\u2014<em class=\"import-i\">your rhetoric<\/em>\u2014has consequences for which you are responsible, and thus you have an ethical duty to your audience.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nYour rhetoric has consequences: Audiences make decisions based on what you say to them!\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.3 Fact-Checking a President<\/strong>\r\n\r\nBecause the public makes choices based on the rhetoric of elected officials, some news outlets increasingly \u201cfact-check\u201d their public statements. In likely the most visible stance on the topic, starting in 2016, <em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em> began pointing out what it felt were misleading statements by Donald Trump rather than just reporting what he said.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>This started by taking a stand against then-candidate Trump\u2019s \u201c<a class=\"rId96\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Birther Lie<\/span><\/a>\u201d concerning the birthplace of Barack Obama.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>It continued by chronicling \u201c<a class=\"rId97\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Trump\u2019s Lies<\/span><\/a>\u201d after his first year in office during his first term as president.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The newspaper proceeded by recording how his public statements between the 2020 presidential election and the January 6, 2021, Capitol riot contained \u201c<a class=\"rId98\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">persistent repetition of lies<\/span><\/a>.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The paper later identified Trump\u2019s \u201c<a class=\"rId99\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">frequently false<\/span><\/a>\u201d statements during a June 2024 presidential debate as a candidate for a second term as president.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>It persisted by documenting his \u201c\u2018<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Machinery\u2019 of Misinformation<\/a>\u201d during Trump\u2019s second term.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_573\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"273\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-573\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image42-1.jpeg\" alt=\"hand written sign that reads: trump lies matter\" width=\"273\" height=\"196\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Trump_Lies_Matter.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Trump Lies Matter<\/a> by Ted Eytan via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">It is easy to question the stance of <em>The New York Times<\/em> as the product of the \u201cliberal media,\u201d but its approach is notable in repeatedly calling out a president for the accuracy of his statements. It does so because public discourse influences the decisions that the public and voters make.[footnote]Michael Barbaro, \u201cDonald Trump Clung to \u2018Birther\u2019 Lie for Years, and Still Isn\u2019t Apologetic,\u201d<em> New York Times<\/em>, September 16, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html<\/a>; Callum Borchers, \u201cWhy <em>The New York Times<\/em> Decided It Is Now Okay to Call Donald Trump a Liar,\u201d <em>Washington Post<\/em>, September 22, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-fix\/wp\/2016\/09\/22\/why-the-new-york-times-decided-it-is-now-okay-to-call-donald-trump-a-liar\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-fix\/wp\/2016\/09\/22\/why-the-new-york-times-decided-it-is-now-okay-to-call-donald-trump-a-liar\/<\/a>; David Leonhardt and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cTrump\u2019s Lies,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, December 14, 2017, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html<\/a>; Larry Buchanan et al., \u201cLie After Lie: Listen to How Trump Built His Alternate Reality,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, February 9, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html<\/a>; Michael Gold, \u201cTrump\u2019s Debate Performance: Relentless Attacks and Falsehoods,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, June 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html<\/a>; Steven Lee Meyers and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cIn His Second Term, Trump Fuels a \u2018Machinery\u2019 of Misinformation,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, March 24, 2025, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_574\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"250\"]<img class=\"wp-image-574\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1.png\" alt=\"black and gold sign that reads National communication association, founded 1916\" width=\"250\" height=\"173\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:NCA_NamePlate.JPG\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NCA Nameplate<\/a> by <bdi>Acekinghearts on <\/bdi>Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">National Communication Association (NCA), the largest organization of communication scholars and practitioners in the United States, has a <a class=\"rId101\" href=\"https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Credo for Ethical Communication<\/span><\/a> that provides a useful perspective on responsible communication behaviors. In part, the credo holds:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote>Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision-making, and relationship building, and community development within, and across, contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth, human life, and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live.[footnote]\u201cCredo for Ethical Communication,\u201d National Communication Association, 1999, revised 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The NCA Credo goes on to list principles at the core of ethical communication, including<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>advocating \u201ctruthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication\u201d;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>condemning \u201ccommunication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred\u201d; and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>accepting \u201cresponsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication\u201d while expecting \u201cthe same of others.\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">You should quickly recognize that qualities consistent with the NCA Credo have been promoted in the opening chapters of this book\u2014and appear central to <em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em>\u2019s criticism of Donald Trump\u2019s rhetoric (in box 5.3). Similarly, if you review the explanations of productive discourse from earlier chapters, you will see a close connection between its practices and the NCA\u2019s expectations for ethical communication.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.4 Artificial Intelligence and Ethics<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_575\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-575\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1.png\" alt=\"The letters AI against a dark backdrop\" width=\"400\" height=\"320\" \/> <span class=\"mw-page-title-main\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artificial_Intelligence_%26_AI_%26_Machine_Learning.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Artificial Intelligence<\/a> by mikemacmarketing <\/span>via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAdvanced artificial intelligence, more commonly known as generative AI, is rapidly reshaping the world in significant ways, including how content is produced. A quickly expanding and ever-changing array of generative AI chatbots and AI assistants are available, including ChatGPT, Claude, Google Bard, Bing Chat, and Gemini.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Increasingly, members of the workforce need to understand how to use generative AI, and colleges need to teach their students about effective, ethical use. The extent to which generative AI acts as a supplement, as opposed to a replacement, for independent work is an important part of the conversation. We advocate measured, thoughtful use of generative AI in ways that improve and refine the speechmaking process rather than substitute for it, maintaining an emphasis on the importance of independent learning of the fundamentals of speechmaking. Here are some considerations to make before you use generative AI as well as how to use it:<\/p>\r\n<strong>Ethically Using Generative AI<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Examine any policies your school has on the use of AI in academic work.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss any potential use of AI with your instructor in advance of utilizing it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Follow any policies or parameters for AI use set out by your instructor: What your instructor says determines the contextual, ethical use of AI for your work on that speech and in that class.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Track and cite your AI use to keep it transparent, including search inputs supplied to the AI. Chapter 9 provides specific instructions on how to cite your use of AI.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Verify any information you locate using AI rather than simply relying on what the AI generates.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Using Generative AI as a Feedback Tool<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Use AI to brainstorm leading arguments and counterarguments on your topic.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use AI to identify policy options and solutions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use AI to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your outline so you can improve it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use AI to polish your writing and make writing suggestions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use AI to prepare for questions the audience might ask about your speech.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Limiting Your Reliance on Generative AI<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Don\u2019t rely on AI to locate and cite sources. Some generative AI make up sources, including citations that seem plausible but are not factually accurate. Chapter 9 also discusses this tendency.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Don\u2019t rely on generative AI to provide accurate information. AI is limited based on the resources available to it.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Don\u2019t rely on AI to generate complex and engaging prose.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe quality of AI-generated content is quickly improving with each iteration of AI chatbots, but limitations to source material and writing quality remain. Such issues have occasionally emerged in controversial and problematic ways, including in the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId104\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">creation of legal briefs that have relied on faulty information<\/span><\/a><\/span>. There are also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId105\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">important questions related to bias<\/span><\/a><\/span> in the language and stereotypes used by some AI, the material generated by AI, and efforts to detect it. These concerns range from the limitations of facial recognition, to generation of imagery, to faulty accusations of AI use that have been levied, particularly against nonnative English writers and speakers.[footnote]Pranshu Verma, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Fake Cases Created by AI in Bid to End His Probation,\u201d <em>Washington Post<\/em>, December 29, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2023\/12\/29\/michael-cohen-ai-google-bard-fake-citations\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2023\/12\/29\/michael-cohen-ai-google-bard-fake-citations<\/a>; Benjamin Weiser and Jonah E. Bromwich, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Artificial Intelligence in Feeding Lawyer Bogus Cases,\u201d<em> New York Times<\/em>, December 29, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/12\/29\/nyregion\/michael-cohen-ai-fake-cases.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/12\/29\/nyregion\/michael-cohen-ai-fake-cases.html<\/a>; Lyle Moran, \u201cLawyer Cites Fake Cases Generated by ChatGPT in Legal Brief,\u201d <em>Legal Dive<\/em>, May 30, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/<\/a>; Aniya Greene-Santos, \u201cDoes AI Have a Bias Problem?,\u201d <em>NEA Today<\/em>, February 22, 2024, https:\/\/www.nea.org\/nea-today\/all-news-articles\/does-ai-have-bias-problem, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Ethos and Five Ethical Practices of Public Communication<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image45.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"109.666666666667px\" height=\"109.666666666667px\" \/>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When engaging in public speaking, there are five ethical practices that deserve additional attention: plagiarism, ethical research, sound reasoning, respectful language, and taking responsibility for consequences. In each case, a violation results in a loss of ethos. Aristotle identified ethos as one of three modes of proof used for invention. <strong class=\"import-b\">Ethos<\/strong> refers to the state of one\u2019s public character or persona\u2014what we commonly call credibility. In the context of public speaking, ethos involves an audience\u2019s perceptions of a speaker\u2019s trustworthiness, competence, goodwill, and dynamism.[footnote]Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, <em>Argumentation and Critical Decision Making<\/em>, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 155.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As listeners, we assess a speaker\u2019s credibility to help determine how much merit to place on their message:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Does the speaker seem honest and of high integrity (trustworthiness)?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do they\u2014by reputation, expertise, or performance\u2014demonstrate themselves as capable (competence)?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do they appear to care about the audience\u2019s welfare (goodwill)?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is their performance engaging (dynamism)?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">All these components have ethical implications, although, understandably, it is the expectation of trustworthiness that is most often invoked in ethical evaluations.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 5.5 Five Ethical Practices of Public Communication<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"width: 1027px;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Ethical practice<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Meaning<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>How to avoid ethical violations<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Avoid plagiarism<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another\u2019s words or ideas as one\u2019s own.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not submit another\u2019s work as your own or use the ideas of others without acknowledgment.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Conduct ethical research<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical research involves proper practices for locating, using, evaluating, and citing research and sources.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Cite your sources; do not overstate or manipulate evidence; do not fabricate evidence; do not suppress counterarguments.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Practice ethical and sound reasoning<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical and sound reasoning requires making reasonable claims supported by quality evidence.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not base arguments on assertion or overly rely on pathos and fear appeals.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Use language ethically<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical language recognizes the value and humanity of others by using accurate language and recognizing one\u2019s identity.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not use rude, vulgar, sexist, heterosexist, or racist language that demeans others, dismisses their identity, and lessens their human value.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Be responsible for the consequences of your rhetoric<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">The speaker who is responsible for the consequences of their rhetoric recognizes and accepts that their communication influences the decision-making of others.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not ignore the implications of your persuasion or evade responsibility for the actions and policies you advocate.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2><em>Avoid Plagiarism<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image46.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"97.6666666666667px\" height=\"97.6666666666667px\" \/>The most commonly recognized ethical responsibility of a speaker is to refrain from plagiarism. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Plagiarism<\/strong><\/span> is the unacknowledged use of another\u2019s words and ideas as one\u2019s own. As a college student, you should understand the importance of original work that is free of plagiarism. You should also understand the need to uphold academic honesty, which avoids all forms of cheating. Original, ethical work is expected from you because it is fundamental to learning, and it is a core component of honesty.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In a public speaking class, it constitutes plagiarism if you submit as your own a speech, outline, or paper prepared by someone else. Plagiarism also includes using language and ideas developed by another source without appropriate citation. Submission of such work is dishonest and thwarts the educational process. Even if you develop delivery skills through the performance of someone else\u2019s work, you cannot learn the speechmaking process, which ranges from topic selection, to thesis development, to research, to argumentation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Generative AI raises new and complex questions surrounding original work. You should discuss any use of AI for speechmaking with your instructor in advance and acknowledge any use of AI within your work. See box 5.4 for further considerations on the ethical use of AI as part of the speechmaking process.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Plagiarism is a concern not only in the classroom but also in society. Several public figures, from politicians to academics, have been accused of plagiarism. These instances (considered in box 5.6) underscore the need to carefully document sources and to not use others\u2019 work as your own. Failing to do so can have devastating consequences and creates the need for public explanations and apologies.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.6 Case Studies: Plagiarism in Society<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_578\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"181\"]<img class=\"wp-image-578\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1.png\" alt=\"Robert Caslen\" width=\"181\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bob_Caslen_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bob Caslen<\/a> by HigherEchelon via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn May 2021, University of South Carolina president Robert Caslen resigned after acknowledging that aspects of his commencement speech plagiarized a 2014 commencement address given at the University of Texas by retired Navy Admiral William McRaven, who was tasked with leading the raid that killed Osama bin Laden. In an acknowledgment that parallels the scenario that opens this chapter, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId109\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Caslen<\/span><span class=\"import-url\"> wrote<\/span><\/a><\/span>, \u201cI was searching for words about resilience in adversity and when they were transcribed into the speech, I failed to ensure its attribution. I take full responsibility for this oversight.\u201d[footnote]Travis Caldwell and Amanda Jackson, \u201cA University President Resigned After a Recent Plagiarized Speech. It\u2019s Not the First Commencement Address Lifted,\u201d <em>CNN<\/em>, May 14, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/05\/14\/us\/plagiarism-commencement-speech-south-carolina\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/05\/14\/us\/plagiarism-commencement-speech-south-carolina\/index.html<\/a>; Becky Sullivan, \u201cUniversity of South Carolina President Resigns After Plagiarizing Part of Speech,\u201d <em>NPR<\/em>, May 13, 2021, https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2021\/05\/13\/996523535\/university-of-south-carolina-president-resigns-after-plagiarizing-commencement-s, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_579\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"192\"]<img class=\"wp-image-579\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1.png\" alt=\"Melania Trump\" width=\"192\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Melania_Trump_(8_February_2016).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Melania Trump<\/a> by Marc Nozell via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Another high-profile incident involved the 2016 Republican National Convention speech given by Melania Trump. The initially well-received speech, which in part discussed Ms. Trump\u2019s upbringing in Slovenia, contained <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId111\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RcbiGsDMmCM\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">several passages and themes that echoed Michelle Obama\u2019s address<\/span><\/a><\/span> at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. In the tumult that followed, a Trump Organization <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId112\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html\"><span class=\"import-url\">staff writer took public responsibility<\/span><\/a><\/span> for the error of \u201cinadvertently\u201d leaving \u201cportions of the Obama speech in the final draft.\u201d[footnote]Jason Horowitz, \u201cBehind Melania Trump\u2019s Cribbed Lines, an Ex-Ballerina Who Loved Writing,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, July 20, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html<\/a>; Brett Neely, \u201cTrump Speechwriter Accepts Responsibility for Using Michelle Obama\u2019s Words,\u201d <em>NPR<\/em>, July 20, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2016\/07\/20\/486758596\/trump-speechwriter-accepts-responsibility-for-using-michelle-obamas-words\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2016\/07\/20\/486758596\/trump-speechwriter-accepts-responsibility-for-using-michelle-obamas-words<\/a>; Maggie Haberman and Michael Barbaro, \u201cHow Melania Trump\u2019s Speech Veered Off Course and Caused an Uproar,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, July 19, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/20\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-convention-speech.html?hp&amp;action=click&amp;pgtype=Homepage&amp;clickSource=story-heading&amp;module=b-lede-package-region&amp;region=top-news&amp;WT.nav=top-news\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/20\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-convention-speech.html?hp&amp;action=click&amp;pgtype=Homepage&amp;clickSource=story-heading&amp;module=b-lede-package-region&amp;region=top-news&amp;WT.nav=top-news<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">These examples demonstrate the importance of taking care during the research process to prevent plagiarism and the consequences of such acts.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Conduct Ethical Research<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">As the examples from Robert Caslen and Melania Trump in box 5.6 illustrate, plagiarism also reflects failings of <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical research<\/strong><\/span> and, most specifically, proper practices for using supporting materials. These ideas are addressed with additional depth in our discussions of research (chapters 8 and 9) and reasoning (chapters 26 and 27). Here we are interested in how source use involves important ethical considerations. So while ethical research implicates issues of plagiarism\u2014for instance, not citing sources or giving the impression that the ideas or words of others are your own\u2014it also extends to the larger realm of academic dishonesty based on how research is gathered and credited.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_580\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-580\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image49-1.png\" alt=\"Hand holding a sign that reads, &quot;Citation needed&quot;\" width=\"256\" height=\"192\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%22Citation_needed%22.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Citation Needed<\/a> by futureatlas.com, via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Speakers commonly face the issue of how to give proper credit to sources. In written work there is the expectation that we use formal modes of documentation ranging from in-text acknowledgment of a source, to endnotes, to bibliographies. Since an oral presentation is a different format, there is sometimes confusion over how to approach such issues. However, the basic expectation is that materials that merit citation in written form also merit citation in an oral form. Chapter 9 specifically addresses how to orally cite research and more thoroughly addresses its importance.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Keep in mind that all sources should appear in a bibliography submitted with any outline you prepare, and you should be able to supply source information to audience members on request. Ultimately, a good rule of thumb is when you are uncertain if material needs to be cited, err on the side of inclusion and provide a verbal acknowledgment.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Beyond citation there are three additional ethical issues related to the use of sources:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Do not overstate or manipulate evidence. Representing evidence accurately rather than manipulating it to fit your desired conclusion is necessary to establish public or audience trust. Remember that the information you convey can influence decision-making.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do not fabricate evidence. Even if you are confident that the evidence exists, do not take a shortcut by inventing what you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">think<\/em><\/span> you know. Instead, locate credible evidence for the idea and cite it. If you cannot locate the evidence, then the legitimacy of your assumed conclusion is also in doubt.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do not suppress counterarguments and opposing evidence. Instead, acknowledge them. This is important because it allows a community to thoroughly consider policy options, particularly since some in your audience are likely aware of such evidence. It is through addressing counterevidence that you can supply important analysis and refutation that can ultimately strengthen your case. Chapter 25 provides guidance for how to acknowledge and refute counterarguments when developing a persuasive speech.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Practice Ethical and Sound Reasoning<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A third ethical responsibility for speech performance is that we make reasonable claims supported by evidence. We must not rely merely on <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">assertion<\/strong><\/span>, a claim that lacks an evidentiary basis and is offered without reason, support, or data.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image50.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"133.666666666667px\" height=\"133.666666666667px\" \/>Relatedly, we must balance appeals to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">pathos<\/strong><\/span>, more commonly called emotional appeals, with the use of reason. Pathos refers to the psychological state of the audience and rests upon a speaker\u2019s effective, ethical appeals to the audience\u2019s emotions and motivations. Like ethos, pathos is part of the rhetorical canon of invention identified in chapter 1.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, relying exclusively on pathos in ways that deter critical thinking is unethical. For instance, it is unethical to ignore the facts of a situation in favor of preying on an audience\u2019s fears. Overly relying on fear tends to discourage thoughtful, reasoned analysis. Chapter 33 offers an analysis of a speech that engaged in this practice.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Use Language Ethically<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Fourth, as a speaker it is your responsibility to respect your audience by using <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical language<\/strong><\/span>. Words are crucial to our understanding of the world and help construct identities. Through our words we can bring a community together to pursue improvements or divide it and hinder such progress. Think about competing ways to discuss substance addiction, transgender persons, or national identity and ethnicity. Our language can be constructive and inclusive in advancing dialogue, or it can severely undermine it.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Therefore, it is important to avoid rude, vulgar, sexist, heterosexist, and racist language as we treat audience members humanely. Sexist, heterosexist, and racist language excludes audience members and denies their value as fellow community members by perpetuating negative perceptions. The labels, metaphors, and euphemisms used to characterize groups of people make it easier to dismiss them and sometimes to even forget their humanity.\u00a0Similarly, inaccurate naming or pronoun use dehumanizes those included in the discussion and\/or those being talked about.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Certainly, we might use unethical language unintentionally, but to do so willfully\u2014for instance, by intentionally ignoring an individual\u2019s pronouns\u2014is to deny and damage identity, reinforce stereotypes, and purposefully disrespect the people involved. The ethical speaker thinks about the context within which they are communicating, attempts to avoid charged or hateful language, and discusses people and objects in appropriate and accurate terms.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Be Responsible for the Consequences of Your Rhetoric<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, the ethical speaker considers and accepts the consequences of their rhetoric. Remember, people base decisions on what you say. Therefore, you must consider the consequences of your message for them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 5.7 Case Study: Irresponsibility for Consequential Rhetoric<\/strong>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_582\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-582\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1.png\" alt=\"Bernie Madoff\" width=\"256\" height=\"312\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BernardMadoff.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bernard Madoff<\/a> by U.S. Department of Justice via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nA spectacular example of an \u201cinvestment advisor\u201d who acted fraudulently is Bernie Madoff. Thousands of investors lost billions of dollars when they gave Madoff control of their assets. While they assumed the monies were being invested, Madoff was actually keeping many of the assets. There were devastating consequences for investors, with many losing a good portion or all of their life savings. In a similar fashion, in 2024 Samuel Bankman-Fried was sentenced to twenty-five years in prison after he was found to have defrauded investors and lenders to his cryptocurrency exchange corporation FTX of nearly $3 billion and been untruthful about how their funds were used.[footnote]Office of Public Affairs, \u201cSamuel Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years for His Orchestration of Multiple Fraudulent Schemes,\u201d U.S. Department of Justice<em>,<\/em> March 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/samuel-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-his-orchestration-multiple-fraudulent-schemes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/samuel-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-his-orchestration-multiple-fraudulent-schemes<\/a>; Rob Wile, \u201cSam Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years in Prison for Orchestrating FTX Fraud,\u201d <em>NBC News<\/em>, March 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/business\/business-news\/sam-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-prison-orchestrating-ftx-fraud-rcna145286\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/business\/business-news\/sam-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-prison-orchestrating-ftx-fraud-rcna145286<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">A public speaker may not cost an audience member their retirement nest egg, but the point is the same: There are consequences to what you say, and you must consider those consequences in forming your message. Just as we expect that investment advisors have training and act ethically in their dealings, we expect public speakers who advocate actions and policies to behave similarly.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">There are, no doubt, other ways a speaker can fail to satisfy their ethical obligations, but we have offered five ideas at the core of ethical speaking behavior. Use these principles as a checklist to review your speech preparation prior to delivering a presentation to ensure you are practicing ethical communication.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter explored the importance of rhetorical ethics in maintaining the reputation of rhetorical practice and making public deliberation possible. Public speaking ethics includes the ethics of speech preparation and the ethics of speech performance. Specifically, in this chapter we observed the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Ethics and ethical codes are used to evaluate our behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Rhetorical ethics provides guidelines for the practice of public communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A casual attitude about ethics has profound implications of a personal and public nature. Ethical faults lead to negative personal evaluations and a loss of ethos, thereby damaging one\u2019s personal and professional opportunities.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>There are significant public implications to unethical behavior, including poisoning public discussion, making reasoned decision-making more difficult, and leading publics toward unwarranted conclusions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sound rhetorical ethics begins with the speech preparation process as we earn the right to address audiences by being prepared, well informed, and practiced.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ethical speaking behavior also means being mindful of our conduct as a speaker and, in particular, avoiding plagiarism, practicing ethical research, bringing forward reasonable claims that are supported by evidence, treating audiences with respect, and taking responsibility for the consequences of our rhetoric.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nassertion\r\ncommunity standards\r\nethical code\r\nethical language\r\nethical research\r\nethics\r\nethos\r\npathos\r\nplagiarism\r\nrhetorical ethics\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is meant by ethics? Rhetorical ethics?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is ethical speech preparation?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is meant by the ethics of public influence?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are five ethical practices of public speaking?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is your school\u2019s code of conduct? What is your school\u2019s plagiarism or academic honesty policy? How is your work in public speaking related to that code and policy?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the most important things you can do to be an ethical speaker?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How common is unethical communication? Where is it most prominent or frequent? Why?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the meaning of ethics and ethical codes.<\/li>\n<li>Complete the ethical responsibilities of preparing to speak in public.<\/li>\n<li>Practice the ethical communication behaviors expected of public discourse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">When preparing for a speaking occasion, you might be tempted to seek guidance and inspiration from past examples. Examining others\u2019 speeches might uncover an ingenious theme, identify a clever reference, or clarify \u201cwhat not to do.\u201d Take a few notes from this speech, \u201ccopy and paste\u201d a paragraph from another, venture into ChatGPT or Gemini to brainstorm topics and organize themes, and before you know it, you have a page or two of promising ideas. However, what is the difference between cultivating ideas based on other speeches and plagiarizing their content?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">With so much information available at our fingertips, it is easy to commit an ethical misstep\u2014whether due to being willfully deceptive, using unauthorized generative AI assistance, taking imprecise notes, and\/or failing to attribute critical information. Such transgressions\u2014and their consequences\u2014explain why ethics is an important, and occasionally confusing, concern for public speaking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We admit ethical questions are not always easy to answer. However, we also hold that there are recognized ethical practices that should govern our speaking and listening behaviors. In this chapter, we consider ethics in three dimensions: the relationship of ethics and rhetorical ethics, the ethics of speech preparation, and the ethics of speech performance.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Ethics and Rhetorical Ethics<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Generally associated with the field of philosophy, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethics<\/strong><\/span> refers to a set of moral principles governing human conduct as it pertains to motives, ends, and the quality of one\u2019s actions. The ethical quality of conduct is generally evaluated based on how it reflects what is deemed \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad,\u201d or \u201cright\u201d or \u201cwrong,\u201d in a culture. We frequently use criteria such as honesty, morality, equality, and justice that are derived from culture, religion, upbringing, and community and institutional contexts to judge the ethics of a behavior.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Richard Johannesen, \u201cEthics,\u201d in The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 235.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-1\" href=\"#footnote-458-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Ethical Codes<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A more specific articulation of ethics is an <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical code<\/strong><\/span>, a set of rules or guidelines agreed to by a culture or group to regulate behavior. For instance, the American Medical Association (AMA) has a \u201c<a class=\"rId86\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Code of Medical Ethics<\/span><\/a>\u201d that is recognized as the \u201cmost comprehensive ethics guide for physicians.\u201d With medical advances and changing legal guidance, the code is subject to reflection and debate. For instance, euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, abortion and some assisted reproductive technologies, and genetic testing and stem cell research present thorny dilemmas. However, the code provides physicians with principles to guide their professional conduct.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cCode of Medical Ethics,\u201d American Medical Association, https:\/\/code-medical-ethics.ama-assn.org\/, archived February 23, 2025, at https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-2\" href=\"#footnote-458-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">College communities also typically have their own code of ethics, such as a university\u2019s \u201crule of conduct\u201d that governs student behavior and academic honesty. Common to such policies is a prohibition on cheating and plagiarism, including copying others\u2019 work, wrongly taking credit for others\u2019 words and ideas by failing to supply necessary attribution, and engaging in additional prohibited activities. You are probably familiar with the meaning of academic honesty at your institution\u2014and if you are not, you should be. While such codes provide guidance to students, inevitably there are debates over their interpretation and enforcement. Perhaps you can point to important debates and discussions about your institution\u2019s code of conduct or policies.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_2526\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2526\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-2526\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Virginia_Military_Institue.jpg\" alt=\"Virginia Military Institute building exterior.\" width=\"250\" height=\"281\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Virginia_Military_Institue.jpg 250w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Virginia_Military_Institue-65x73.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/Virginia_Military_Institue-225x253.jpg 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2526\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Virginia_Military_Institute#\/media\/File:Virginia_Military_Institue.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Virginia Military Institute<\/a> by National Park Service via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId88\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Virginia Military Institute\u2019s (<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">VMI<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">) honor system<\/span><\/a><\/span> is one of the most historic ethical codes in higher education. At the heart of its system is the principle that cadets are \u201cmen and women of honor and integrity who can always be trusted\u201d to follow their succinct code: \u201cA Cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, nor tolerate those who do.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cHonor System,\u201d Virginia Military Institute, https:\/\/www.vmi.edu\/cadet-life\/cadet-leadership-and-development\/honor-system\/, archived February 23, 2025, at https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-3\" href=\"#footnote-458-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The difficulty in identifying a singular, universal ethical code is that individuals and communities have different worldviews, experiences, and values. Behavior that is accepted and expected in one community may be out of bounds in another. Actions we would dismiss as unethical in the abstract\u2014lying, for instance\u2014might be more complicated when put into specific contexts. The point is that ethical standards are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">community standards<\/strong><\/span>, and thus, we can expect disagreements about their meaning. However, that does not mean all actions are acceptable, only that ethical evaluations are based on many factors.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Rhetorical Ethics<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image37.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"131.133333333333px\" height=\"131.133333333333px\" \/>While no single widely known code of rhetorical ethics exists on the level of the AMA\u2019s \u201cCode of Medical Ethics,\u201d we can identify communication behaviors that are deemed acceptable and unacceptable. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Rhetorical ethics<\/strong><\/span>, or the ethics of public speaking, refers to how we expect speakers and audience members to behave and interact as they communicate about matters of the public good. To that end, rhetoric scholar James Herrick identifies a set of ethical goods inherent across the history of rhetorical practice:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 80px;\">(1) discovering truths and arguments relevant to decision-making on contingent issues,<br \/>\n(2) advocating, interpreting and propagating ideas before publics, and<br \/>\n(3) testing propositions in debate.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"James A. Herrick, \u201cRhetoric, Ethics, and Virtue,\u201d Communication Studies 43 (1992): 139, 144-45, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10510979209368367.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-4\" href=\"#footnote-458-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">When you, as a speaker, adhere to these practices, you enrich our public discourse. Moreover, you embody ethical rhetoric and reflect the qualities of productive discourse discussed in chapter 3.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">We contend that rhetorical ethics involves the preparation of public speakers, the actions of speakers in presenting information, and as the next chapter explores, the listening behaviors of audiences.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Ethics of Speech Preparation<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Rhetorical ethics begins with the speech preparation process. This includes the commitment a speaker shows to an audience as well as the ethical choices made in the selection of information. While the next section on speech performance discusses the latter topic, here we consider speech preparation as an ethical demand.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.1 The Deceptively Hard Work of Speech Preparation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>When done well, public speaking looks deceptively easy\u2014it is \u201cjust talking,\u201d after all. Few people fully appreciate how difficult it is to craft a successful presentation\u2014the time it takes to develop the main idea, do the research, choose the language and tone, practice the delivery, and so forth. In fact, one might say we are trained to <em class=\"import-i\">not<\/em> notice these efforts.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_569\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-569\" style=\"width: 128px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-569\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image38-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"128\" height=\"185\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image38-1.png 128w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image38-1-65x94.png 65w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-569\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Denzel_Washington_2018.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Denzel Washington<\/a> by MTV UK via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Few football coaches give the sort of refined inspirational speech offered by Denzel Washington\u2019s Coach Boone on the field of Gettysburg in <em class=\"import-i\">Remember the Titans<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_570\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-570\" style=\"width: 128px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-570\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image39-1.png\" alt=\"America Ferrera\" width=\"128\" height=\"170\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image39-1.png 128w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image39-1-65x86.png 65w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-570\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:America_Ferrera_BFI081223_(53389386439).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">America Ferrera<\/a> by Raph_PH via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Few people can offer the type of on-the-spot\u2014and spot-on\u2014social commentary delivered by <a class=\"rId92\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">America Ferrera\u2019s Gloria in <\/span><em class=\"import-url-i\">Barbie<\/em><\/a> as she recited the double bind of femininity and the crushing expectations of being a woman in contemporary society.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"HBO Max, \u201cAmerica Ferrera's Iconic Barbie Speech,\u201d posted December 22, 2023, YouTube, https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-5\" href=\"#footnote-458-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When attending public lectures on your college campus, you probably have noticed that many speakers rely extensively on PowerPoint presentations or even use a full manuscript. You are justified in desiring more engagement from such speakers. But an expert\u2019s reliance on their text reflects just how difficult public speaking can be, particularly when specific terminology is important. The point is that preparing a speech is hard work. America Ferrera and Denzel Washington are effective actors because they have honed their craft over many years.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Even nonactors like the late Steve Jobs, cofounder and chief executive officer of Apple, achieve speaking success, in part, due to their extensive preparation. Before his death, Jobs was a highly anticipated and captivating business speaker, and his \u201ctech talks\u201d were \u201cmust-see TV\u201d for computer geeks and investors alike as he introduced new products and updates.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_571\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-571\" style=\"width: 248px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-571\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image40-1.png\" alt=\"Steve Jobs speaking\" width=\"248\" height=\"283\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image40-1.png 248w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image40-1-65x74.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image40-1-225x257.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-571\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Steve_Jobs_Speaks_At_WWDC07_(541334636).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steve Jobs<\/a> by Ben Stanfield via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><a class=\"rId94\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VQKMoT-6XSg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Watching Jobs<\/span><\/a>, one might note his easy extemporaneous style, his eye contact, the engaging gestures, and the integration of his content with his visual aids. Although he tended to pace, it fit the persona he developed. In his appearances at the Macworld Expo, for example, Jobs appeared casual and relaxed, perhaps giving the impression that he had not prepared very much or was not trying very hard. On the contrary, this was part of the appearance Jobs worked diligently to cultivate. We are not suggesting that the accolades Jobs received as a speaker were unwarranted. Instead, they were achieved after a significant investment of time and effort.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Mike Evangelist, a former associate of Jobs at Apple, explained that Steve Jobs started preparing for his keynote addresses weeks in advance, not just developing his speech, but also reviewing all the products and technologies that might be relevant. Evangelist says that Jobs would go through multiple dress rehearsals that focused on every conceivable element with \u201cno detail\u2026overlooked.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mike Evangelist, \u201cBehind the Magic Curtain,\u201d The Guardian, January 5, 2006, https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2006\/jan\/05\/newmedia.media1.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-6\" href=\"#footnote-458-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">What effective public speakers and performers have in common is that they take their development of public discourse\u2014their speeches, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">their work<\/em><\/span>\u2014very seriously. They are responsible to their audience; they are <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">ethical<\/em><\/span> in their preparation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The idea that speech preparation is not only important but also an ethical demand for speakers was well explained by Professor W. Norwood Brigance in a public speaking textbook chapter entitled \u201cFour Fundamentals for Speakers.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"William Norwood Brigance, Speech: Its Techniques and Disciplines in a Free Society (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952), 16\u201324.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-7\" href=\"#footnote-458-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> In his direct and challenging style, Brigance made clear how much work is required of public speakers: \u201cEffective public speaking is a technique, as definitely as are the techniques of designing airplanes and removing appendixes, except that it is older and more complex than either.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brigance, Speech, 16.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-8\" href=\"#footnote-458-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a> How can Brigance claim that public speaking is more complex than the precise calculations required to keep an aircraft in flight or the delicate movements necessary in surgery? His point is that there is not a single rote method for speechmaking, nor is there an equation available to guarantee success. With so many human factors and variables, public speaking requires constant revision and adaptation along with sustained attention to its preparation.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.2 Ethical Preparation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Elements of ethical preparation are addressed across this book, including instruction on research, reasoning, outlining, and delivery. Some of the more important practices that demonstrate ethical preparation for your public presentations include the following:<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Advanced planning<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Begin working on your speech well in advance of its due date: at least one week, and longer for lengthier and more significant presentations.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Information selection<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Research your ideas and select your supporting material carefully.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Note-taking<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Take careful notes while researching in order to keep track of sources, catalog internet URLs, and properly attribute information.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\"><strong>Revision and refinement<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Engage in revision and refine your ideas as you develop the presentation.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><strong>Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Practice your presentation multiple times before giving it to a public audience.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\"><strong>Responsibility and respectfulness<\/strong><\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Make your message meaningful to your audience out of respect for their time.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Another Brigance maxim to which we subscribe is his belief that a speaker \u201cmust earn the right to give every speech.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brigance, Speech, 23.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-9\" href=\"#footnote-458-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> While many people \u201clike to talk\u201d or \u201clike to debate,\u201d they overlook the responsibility that comes with the opportunity. When you are given a chance to speak, it comes with a corresponding ethical responsibility to take the occasion seriously and to come prepared with something meaningful to share. See box 5.2 for advice on practices important to ethical speech preparation.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Ethics of Speech Performance<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Every so often, we learn that a high-profile speaker unethically took another person\u2019s ideas. Perhaps you know of such an example. But why does it matter if the speaker did not invent their speech? Does it really change how an audience should understand and respond to the rhetoric? Yes, it very well might. In this section we examine the ethics of public influence and five ethical practices important to public communication.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>The Ethics of Public Influence<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Perhaps <em class=\"import-i\">the<\/em> central reason rhetorical ethics is important is that audiences make decisions based on the public discourse they hear. We form judgments based on listening to commencement speakers, reading a trusted information source on the internet, and even when making travel decisions after seeing a forecast from the local meteorologist. <img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image41.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"138.8px\" height=\"138.8px\" \/>In each case, rhetors communicate information the public uses in decision-making: How can I best contribute to society? Which candidate should I vote for? What can I do about environmental problems in my community? Is it safe to travel today? Public rhetoric\u2014<em class=\"import-i\">your rhetoric<\/em>\u2014has consequences for which you are responsible, and thus you have an ethical duty to your audience.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>Your rhetoric has consequences: Audiences make decisions based on what you say to them!<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.3 Fact-Checking a President<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Because the public makes choices based on the rhetoric of elected officials, some news outlets increasingly \u201cfact-check\u201d their public statements. In likely the most visible stance on the topic, starting in 2016, <em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em> began pointing out what it felt were misleading statements by Donald Trump rather than just reporting what he said.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>This started by taking a stand against then-candidate Trump\u2019s \u201c<a class=\"rId96\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Birther Lie<\/span><\/a>\u201d concerning the birthplace of Barack Obama.<\/li>\n<li>It continued by chronicling \u201c<a class=\"rId97\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Trump\u2019s Lies<\/span><\/a>\u201d after his first year in office during his first term as president.<\/li>\n<li>The newspaper proceeded by recording how his public statements between the 2020 presidential election and the January 6, 2021, Capitol riot contained \u201c<a class=\"rId98\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">persistent repetition of lies<\/span><\/a>.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>The paper later identified Trump\u2019s \u201c<a class=\"rId99\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">frequently false<\/span><\/a>\u201d statements during a June 2024 presidential debate as a candidate for a second term as president.<\/li>\n<li>It persisted by documenting his \u201c\u2018<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Machinery\u2019 of Misinformation<\/a>\u201d during Trump\u2019s second term.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_573\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-573\" style=\"width: 273px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-573\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image42-1.jpeg\" alt=\"hand written sign that reads: trump lies matter\" width=\"273\" height=\"196\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image42-1.jpeg 273w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image42-1-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image42-1-225x162.jpeg 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-573\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Trump_Lies_Matter.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Trump Lies Matter<\/a> by Ted Eytan via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">It is easy to question the stance of <em>The New York Times<\/em> as the product of the \u201cliberal media,\u201d but its approach is notable in repeatedly calling out a president for the accuracy of his statements. It does so because public discourse influences the decisions that the public and voters make.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Michael Barbaro, \u201cDonald Trump Clung to \u2018Birther\u2019 Lie for Years, and Still Isn\u2019t Apologetic,\u201d New York Times, September 16, 2016, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html; Callum Borchers, \u201cWhy The New York Times Decided It Is Now Okay to Call Donald Trump a Liar,\u201d Washington Post, September 22, 2016, https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-fix\/wp\/2016\/09\/22\/why-the-new-york-times-decided-it-is-now-okay-to-call-donald-trump-a-liar\/; David Leonhardt and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cTrump\u2019s Lies,\u201d\u00a0New York Times, December 14, 2017, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html; Larry Buchanan et al., \u201cLie After Lie: Listen to How Trump Built His Alternate Reality,\u201d New York Times, February 9, 2021, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html; Michael Gold, \u201cTrump\u2019s Debate Performance: Relentless Attacks and Falsehoods,\u201d New York Times, June 28, 2024, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html; Steven Lee Meyers and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cIn His Second Term, Trump Fuels a \u2018Machinery\u2019 of Misinformation,\u201d New York Times, March 24, 2025, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-10\" href=\"#footnote-458-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_574\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-574\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-574\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1.png\" alt=\"black and gold sign that reads National communication association, founded 1916\" width=\"250\" height=\"173\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1.png 346w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1-300x208.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1-65x45.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image43-1-225x156.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-574\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:NCA_NamePlate.JPG\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NCA Nameplate<\/a> by <bdi>Acekinghearts on <\/bdi>Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">National Communication Association (NCA), the largest organization of communication scholars and practitioners in the United States, has a <a class=\"rId101\" href=\"https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Credo for Ethical Communication<\/span><\/a> that provides a useful perspective on responsible communication behaviors. In part, the credo holds:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision-making, and relationship building, and community development within, and across, contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth, human life, and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u201cCredo for Ethical Communication,\u201d National Communication Association, 1999, revised 2024, https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-11\" href=\"#footnote-458-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The NCA Credo goes on to list principles at the core of ethical communication, including<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>advocating \u201ctruthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication\u201d;<\/li>\n<li>condemning \u201ccommunication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred\u201d; and<\/li>\n<li>accepting \u201cresponsibility for the short- and long-term consequences for our own communication\u201d while expecting \u201cthe same of others.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">You should quickly recognize that qualities consistent with the NCA Credo have been promoted in the opening chapters of this book\u2014and appear central to <em class=\"import-i\">The <\/em><em class=\"import-i\">New York Times<\/em>\u2019s criticism of Donald Trump\u2019s rhetoric (in box 5.3). Similarly, if you review the explanations of productive discourse from earlier chapters, you will see a close connection between its practices and the NCA\u2019s expectations for ethical communication.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.4 Artificial Intelligence and Ethics<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_575\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-575\" style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-575\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1.png\" alt=\"The letters AI against a dark backdrop\" width=\"400\" height=\"320\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1.png 400w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1-300x240.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1-65x52.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1-225x180.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image44-1-350x280.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-575\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span class=\"mw-page-title-main\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artificial_Intelligence_%26_AI_%26_Machine_Learning.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Artificial Intelligence<\/a> by mikemacmarketing <\/span>via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Advanced artificial intelligence, more commonly known as generative AI, is rapidly reshaping the world in significant ways, including how content is produced. A quickly expanding and ever-changing array of generative AI chatbots and AI assistants are available, including ChatGPT, Claude, Google Bard, Bing Chat, and Gemini.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Increasingly, members of the workforce need to understand how to use generative AI, and colleges need to teach their students about effective, ethical use. The extent to which generative AI acts as a supplement, as opposed to a replacement, for independent work is an important part of the conversation. We advocate measured, thoughtful use of generative AI in ways that improve and refine the speechmaking process rather than substitute for it, maintaining an emphasis on the importance of independent learning of the fundamentals of speechmaking. Here are some considerations to make before you use generative AI as well as how to use it:<\/p>\n<p><strong>Ethically Using Generative AI<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Examine any policies your school has on the use of AI in academic work.<\/li>\n<li>Discuss any potential use of AI with your instructor in advance of utilizing it.<\/li>\n<li>Follow any policies or parameters for AI use set out by your instructor: What your instructor says determines the contextual, ethical use of AI for your work on that speech and in that class.<\/li>\n<li>Track and cite your AI use to keep it transparent, including search inputs supplied to the AI. Chapter 9 provides specific instructions on how to cite your use of AI.<\/li>\n<li>Verify any information you locate using AI rather than simply relying on what the AI generates.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Using Generative AI as a Feedback Tool<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Use AI to brainstorm leading arguments and counterarguments on your topic.<\/li>\n<li>Use AI to identify policy options and solutions.<\/li>\n<li>Use AI to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your outline so you can improve it.<\/li>\n<li>Use AI to polish your writing and make writing suggestions.<\/li>\n<li>Use AI to prepare for questions the audience might ask about your speech.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Limiting Your Reliance on Generative AI<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Don\u2019t rely on AI to locate and cite sources. Some generative AI make up sources, including citations that seem plausible but are not factually accurate. Chapter 9 also discusses this tendency.<\/li>\n<li>Don\u2019t rely on generative AI to provide accurate information. AI is limited based on the resources available to it.<\/li>\n<li>Don\u2019t rely on AI to generate complex and engaging prose.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The quality of AI-generated content is quickly improving with each iteration of AI chatbots, but limitations to source material and writing quality remain. Such issues have occasionally emerged in controversial and problematic ways, including in the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId104\" href=\"https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">creation of legal briefs that have relied on faulty information<\/span><\/a><\/span>. There are also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId105\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">important questions related to bias<\/span><\/a><\/span> in the language and stereotypes used by some AI, the material generated by AI, and efforts to detect it. These concerns range from the limitations of facial recognition, to generation of imagery, to faulty accusations of AI use that have been levied, particularly against nonnative English writers and speakers.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Pranshu Verma, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Fake Cases Created by AI in Bid to End His Probation,\u201d Washington Post, December 29, 2023, https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2023\/12\/29\/michael-cohen-ai-google-bard-fake-citations; Benjamin Weiser and Jonah E. Bromwich, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Artificial Intelligence in Feeding Lawyer Bogus Cases,\u201d New York Times, December 29, 2023, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/12\/29\/nyregion\/michael-cohen-ai-fake-cases.html; Lyle Moran, \u201cLawyer Cites Fake Cases Generated by ChatGPT in Legal Brief,\u201d Legal Dive, May 30, 2023, https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/; Aniya Greene-Santos, \u201cDoes AI Have a Bias Problem?,\u201d NEA Today, February 22, 2024, https:\/\/www.nea.org\/nea-today\/all-news-articles\/does-ai-have-bias-problem, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-12\" href=\"#footnote-458-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Ethos and Five Ethical Practices of Public Communication<\/em><\/h2>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption alignleft\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image45.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"109.666666666667px\" height=\"109.666666666667px\" \/><\/div>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When engaging in public speaking, there are five ethical practices that deserve additional attention: plagiarism, ethical research, sound reasoning, respectful language, and taking responsibility for consequences. In each case, a violation results in a loss of ethos. Aristotle identified ethos as one of three modes of proof used for invention. <strong class=\"import-b\">Ethos<\/strong> refers to the state of one\u2019s public character or persona\u2014what we commonly call credibility. In the context of public speaking, ethos involves an audience\u2019s perceptions of a speaker\u2019s trustworthiness, competence, goodwill, and dynamism.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, Argumentation and Critical Decision Making, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 155.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-13\" href=\"#footnote-458-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As listeners, we assess a speaker\u2019s credibility to help determine how much merit to place on their message:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Does the speaker seem honest and of high integrity (trustworthiness)?<\/li>\n<li>Do they\u2014by reputation, expertise, or performance\u2014demonstrate themselves as capable (competence)?<\/li>\n<li>Do they appear to care about the audience\u2019s welfare (goodwill)?<\/li>\n<li>Is their performance engaging (dynamism)?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">All these components have ethical implications, although, understandably, it is the expectation of trustworthiness that is most often invoked in ethical evaluations.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 5.5 Five Ethical Practices of Public Communication<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 1027px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Ethical practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Meaning<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>How to avoid ethical violations<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Avoid plagiarism<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another\u2019s words or ideas as one\u2019s own.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not submit another\u2019s work as your own or use the ideas of others without acknowledgment.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Conduct ethical research<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical research involves proper practices for locating, using, evaluating, and citing research and sources.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Cite your sources; do not overstate or manipulate evidence; do not fabricate evidence; do not suppress counterarguments.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Practice ethical and sound reasoning<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical and sound reasoning requires making reasonable claims supported by quality evidence.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not base arguments on assertion or overly rely on pathos and fear appeals.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Use language ethically<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Ethical language recognizes the value and humanity of others by using accurate language and recognizing one\u2019s identity.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not use rude, vulgar, sexist, heterosexist, or racist language that demeans others, dismisses their identity, and lessens their human value.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 235.44px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Be responsible for the consequences of your rhetoric<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 277.5px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">The speaker who is responsible for the consequences of their rhetoric recognizes and accepts that their communication influences the decision-making of others.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: 0.5pt solid windowtext; width: 461.832px;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Do not ignore the implications of your persuasion or evade responsibility for the actions and policies you advocate.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h2><em>Avoid Plagiarism<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image46.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"97.6666666666667px\" height=\"97.6666666666667px\" \/>The most commonly recognized ethical responsibility of a speaker is to refrain from plagiarism. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Plagiarism<\/strong><\/span> is the unacknowledged use of another\u2019s words and ideas as one\u2019s own. As a college student, you should understand the importance of original work that is free of plagiarism. You should also understand the need to uphold academic honesty, which avoids all forms of cheating. Original, ethical work is expected from you because it is fundamental to learning, and it is a core component of honesty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In a public speaking class, it constitutes plagiarism if you submit as your own a speech, outline, or paper prepared by someone else. Plagiarism also includes using language and ideas developed by another source without appropriate citation. Submission of such work is dishonest and thwarts the educational process. Even if you develop delivery skills through the performance of someone else\u2019s work, you cannot learn the speechmaking process, which ranges from topic selection, to thesis development, to research, to argumentation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Generative AI raises new and complex questions surrounding original work. You should discuss any use of AI for speechmaking with your instructor in advance and acknowledge any use of AI within your work. See box 5.4 for further considerations on the ethical use of AI as part of the speechmaking process.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Plagiarism is a concern not only in the classroom but also in society. Several public figures, from politicians to academics, have been accused of plagiarism. These instances (considered in box 5.6) underscore the need to carefully document sources and to not use others\u2019 work as your own. Failing to do so can have devastating consequences and creates the need for public explanations and apologies.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.6 Case Studies: Plagiarism in Society<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_578\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-578\" style=\"width: 181px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-578\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1.png\" alt=\"Robert Caslen\" width=\"181\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1-217x300.png 217w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1-65x90.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image47-1-225x311.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-578\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bob_Caslen_(cropped).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bob Caslen<\/a> by HigherEchelon via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA.<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In May 2021, University of South Carolina president Robert Caslen resigned after acknowledging that aspects of his commencement speech plagiarized a 2014 commencement address given at the University of Texas by retired Navy Admiral William McRaven, who was tasked with leading the raid that killed Osama bin Laden. In an acknowledgment that parallels the scenario that opens this chapter, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId109\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Caslen<\/span><span class=\"import-url\"> wrote<\/span><\/a><\/span>, \u201cI was searching for words about resilience in adversity and when they were transcribed into the speech, I failed to ensure its attribution. I take full responsibility for this oversight.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Travis Caldwell and Amanda Jackson, \u201cA University President Resigned After a Recent Plagiarized Speech. It\u2019s Not the First Commencement Address Lifted,\u201d CNN, May 14, 2021, https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/05\/14\/us\/plagiarism-commencement-speech-south-carolina\/index.html; Becky Sullivan, \u201cUniversity of South Carolina President Resigns After Plagiarizing Part of Speech,\u201d NPR, May 13, 2021, https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2021\/05\/13\/996523535\/university-of-south-carolina-president-resigns-after-plagiarizing-commencement-s, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-14\" href=\"#footnote-458-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_579\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-579\" style=\"width: 192px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-579\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1.png\" alt=\"Melania Trump\" width=\"192\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1-231x300.png 231w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1-65x85.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image48-1-225x293.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-579\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Melania_Trump_(8_February_2016).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Melania Trump<\/a> by Marc Nozell via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Another high-profile incident involved the 2016 Republican National Convention speech given by Melania Trump. The initially well-received speech, which in part discussed Ms. Trump\u2019s upbringing in Slovenia, contained <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId111\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RcbiGsDMmCM\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">several passages and themes that echoed Michelle Obama\u2019s address<\/span><\/a><\/span> at the 2008 Democratic National Convention. In the tumult that followed, a Trump Organization <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId112\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html\"><span class=\"import-url\">staff writer took public responsibility<\/span><\/a><\/span> for the error of \u201cinadvertently\u201d leaving \u201cportions of the Obama speech in the final draft.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jason Horowitz, \u201cBehind Melania Trump\u2019s Cribbed Lines, an Ex-Ballerina Who Loved Writing,\u201d\u00a0New York Times, July 20, 2016, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html; Brett Neely, \u201cTrump Speechwriter Accepts Responsibility for Using Michelle Obama\u2019s Words,\u201d NPR, July 20, 2016, https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2016\/07\/20\/486758596\/trump-speechwriter-accepts-responsibility-for-using-michelle-obamas-words; Maggie Haberman and Michael Barbaro, \u201cHow Melania Trump\u2019s Speech Veered Off Course and Caused an Uproar,\u201d\u00a0New York Times, July 19, 2016, https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/20\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-convention-speech.html?hp&amp;action=click&amp;pgtype=Homepage&amp;clickSource=story-heading&amp;module=b-lede-package-region&amp;region=top-news&amp;WT.nav=top-news.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-15\" href=\"#footnote-458-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">These examples demonstrate the importance of taking care during the research process to prevent plagiarism and the consequences of such acts.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Conduct Ethical Research<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">As the examples from Robert Caslen and Melania Trump in box 5.6 illustrate, plagiarism also reflects failings of <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical research<\/strong><\/span> and, most specifically, proper practices for using supporting materials. These ideas are addressed with additional depth in our discussions of research (chapters 8 and 9) and reasoning (chapters 26 and 27). Here we are interested in how source use involves important ethical considerations. So while ethical research implicates issues of plagiarism\u2014for instance, not citing sources or giving the impression that the ideas or words of others are your own\u2014it also extends to the larger realm of academic dishonesty based on how research is gathered and credited.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_580\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-580\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-580\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image49-1.png\" alt=\"Hand holding a sign that reads, &quot;Citation needed&quot;\" width=\"256\" height=\"192\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image49-1.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image49-1-65x49.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image49-1-225x169.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-580\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:%22Citation_needed%22.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Citation Needed<\/a> by futureatlas.com, via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Speakers commonly face the issue of how to give proper credit to sources. In written work there is the expectation that we use formal modes of documentation ranging from in-text acknowledgment of a source, to endnotes, to bibliographies. Since an oral presentation is a different format, there is sometimes confusion over how to approach such issues. However, the basic expectation is that materials that merit citation in written form also merit citation in an oral form. Chapter 9 specifically addresses how to orally cite research and more thoroughly addresses its importance.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Keep in mind that all sources should appear in a bibliography submitted with any outline you prepare, and you should be able to supply source information to audience members on request. Ultimately, a good rule of thumb is when you are uncertain if material needs to be cited, err on the side of inclusion and provide a verbal acknowledgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Beyond citation there are three additional ethical issues related to the use of sources:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Do not overstate or manipulate evidence. Representing evidence accurately rather than manipulating it to fit your desired conclusion is necessary to establish public or audience trust. Remember that the information you convey can influence decision-making.<\/li>\n<li>Do not fabricate evidence. Even if you are confident that the evidence exists, do not take a shortcut by inventing what you <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">think<\/em><\/span> you know. Instead, locate credible evidence for the idea and cite it. If you cannot locate the evidence, then the legitimacy of your assumed conclusion is also in doubt.<\/li>\n<li>Do not suppress counterarguments and opposing evidence. Instead, acknowledge them. This is important because it allows a community to thoroughly consider policy options, particularly since some in your audience are likely aware of such evidence. It is through addressing counterevidence that you can supply important analysis and refutation that can ultimately strengthen your case. Chapter 25 provides guidance for how to acknowledge and refute counterarguments when developing a persuasive speech.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Practice Ethical and Sound Reasoning<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">A third ethical responsibility for speech performance is that we make reasonable claims supported by evidence. We must not rely merely on <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">assertion<\/strong><\/span>, a claim that lacks an evidentiary basis and is offered without reason, support, or data.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignright\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image50.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"133.666666666667px\" height=\"133.666666666667px\" \/>Relatedly, we must balance appeals to <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">pathos<\/strong><\/span>, more commonly called emotional appeals, with the use of reason. Pathos refers to the psychological state of the audience and rests upon a speaker\u2019s effective, ethical appeals to the audience\u2019s emotions and motivations. Like ethos, pathos is part of the rhetorical canon of invention identified in chapter 1.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">However, relying exclusively on pathos in ways that deter critical thinking is unethical. For instance, it is unethical to ignore the facts of a situation in favor of preying on an audience\u2019s fears. Overly relying on fear tends to discourage thoughtful, reasoned analysis. Chapter 33 offers an analysis of a speech that engaged in this practice.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Use Language Ethically<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Fourth, as a speaker it is your responsibility to respect your audience by using <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">ethical language<\/strong><\/span>. Words are crucial to our understanding of the world and help construct identities. Through our words we can bring a community together to pursue improvements or divide it and hinder such progress. Think about competing ways to discuss substance addiction, transgender persons, or national identity and ethnicity. Our language can be constructive and inclusive in advancing dialogue, or it can severely undermine it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Therefore, it is important to avoid rude, vulgar, sexist, heterosexist, and racist language as we treat audience members humanely. Sexist, heterosexist, and racist language excludes audience members and denies their value as fellow community members by perpetuating negative perceptions. The labels, metaphors, and euphemisms used to characterize groups of people make it easier to dismiss them and sometimes to even forget their humanity.\u00a0Similarly, inaccurate naming or pronoun use dehumanizes those included in the discussion and\/or those being talked about.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Certainly, we might use unethical language unintentionally, but to do so willfully\u2014for instance, by intentionally ignoring an individual\u2019s pronouns\u2014is to deny and damage identity, reinforce stereotypes, and purposefully disrespect the people involved. The ethical speaker thinks about the context within which they are communicating, attempts to avoid charged or hateful language, and discusses people and objects in appropriate and accurate terms.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"import-ch\">Be Responsible for the Consequences of Your Rhetoric<\/h3>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, the ethical speaker considers and accepts the consequences of their rhetoric. Remember, people base decisions on what you say. Therefore, you must consider the consequences of your message for them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 5.7 Case Study: Irresponsibility for Consequential Rhetoric<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_582\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-582\" style=\"width: 256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-582\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1.png\" alt=\"Bernie Madoff\" width=\"256\" height=\"312\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1.png 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1-246x300.png 246w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1-65x79.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image51-1-225x274.png 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-582\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BernardMadoff.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Bernard Madoff<\/a> by U.S. Department of Justice via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>A spectacular example of an \u201cinvestment advisor\u201d who acted fraudulently is Bernie Madoff. Thousands of investors lost billions of dollars when they gave Madoff control of their assets. While they assumed the monies were being invested, Madoff was actually keeping many of the assets. There were devastating consequences for investors, with many losing a good portion or all of their life savings. In a similar fashion, in 2024 Samuel Bankman-Fried was sentenced to twenty-five years in prison after he was found to have defrauded investors and lenders to his cryptocurrency exchange corporation FTX of nearly $3 billion and been untruthful about how their funds were used.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Office of Public Affairs, \u201cSamuel Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years for His Orchestration of Multiple Fraudulent Schemes,\u201d U.S. Department of Justice, March 28, 2024, https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/samuel-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-his-orchestration-multiple-fraudulent-schemes; Rob Wile, \u201cSam Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years in Prison for Orchestrating FTX Fraud,\u201d NBC News, March 28, 2024, https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/business\/business-news\/sam-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-prison-orchestrating-ftx-fraud-rcna145286.\" id=\"return-footnote-458-16\" href=\"#footnote-458-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">A public speaker may not cost an audience member their retirement nest egg, but the point is the same: There are consequences to what you say, and you must consider those consequences in forming your message. Just as we expect that investment advisors have training and act ethically in their dealings, we expect public speakers who advocate actions and policies to behave similarly.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">There are, no doubt, other ways a speaker can fail to satisfy their ethical obligations, but we have offered five ideas at the core of ethical speaking behavior. Use these principles as a checklist to review your speech preparation prior to delivering a presentation to ensure you are practicing ethical communication.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter explored the importance of rhetorical ethics in maintaining the reputation of rhetorical practice and making public deliberation possible. Public speaking ethics includes the ethics of speech preparation and the ethics of speech performance. Specifically, in this chapter we observed the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Ethics and ethical codes are used to evaluate our behaviors.<\/li>\n<li>Rhetorical ethics provides guidelines for the practice of public communication.<\/li>\n<li>A casual attitude about ethics has profound implications of a personal and public nature. Ethical faults lead to negative personal evaluations and a loss of ethos, thereby damaging one\u2019s personal and professional opportunities.<\/li>\n<li>There are significant public implications to unethical behavior, including poisoning public discussion, making reasoned decision-making more difficult, and leading publics toward unwarranted conclusions.<\/li>\n<li>Sound rhetorical ethics begins with the speech preparation process as we earn the right to address audiences by being prepared, well informed, and practiced.<\/li>\n<li>Ethical speaking behavior also means being mindful of our conduct as a speaker and, in particular, avoiding plagiarism, practicing ethical research, bringing forward reasonable claims that are supported by evidence, treating audiences with respect, and taking responsibility for the consequences of our rhetoric.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>assertion<br \/>\ncommunity standards<br \/>\nethical code<br \/>\nethical language<br \/>\nethical research<br \/>\nethics<br \/>\nethos<br \/>\npathos<br \/>\nplagiarism<br \/>\nrhetorical ethics<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is meant by ethics? Rhetorical ethics?<\/li>\n<li>What is ethical speech preparation?<\/li>\n<li>What is meant by the ethics of public influence?<\/li>\n<li>What are five ethical practices of public speaking?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is your school\u2019s code of conduct? What is your school\u2019s plagiarism or academic honesty policy? How is your work in public speaking related to that code and policy?<\/li>\n<li>What are the most important things you can do to be an ethical speaker?<\/li>\n<li>How common is unethical communication? Where is it most prominent or frequent? Why?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-458-1\">Richard Johannesen, \u201cEthics,\u201d in <em>The Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition<\/em>, ed. Theresa Enos (New York: Garland, 1996), 235. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-2\">\u201cCode of Medical Ethics,\u201d American Medical Association, https:\/\/code-medical-ethics.ama-assn.org\/, archived February 23, 2025, at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/LR3S-K5CT<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-3\">\u201cHonor System,\u201d Virginia Military Institute, https:\/\/www.vmi.edu\/cadet-life\/cadet-leadership-and-development\/honor-system\/, archived February 23, 2025, at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/YQX8-4XM5.<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-4\">James A. Herrick, \u201cRhetoric, Ethics, and Virtue,\u201d <em>Communication Studies<\/em> 43 (1992): 139, 144-45, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10510979209368367\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10510979209368367<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-5\">HBO Max, \u201cAmerica Ferrera's Iconic Barbie Speech,\u201d posted December 22, 2023, YouTube, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=CBqlDWHkdHk<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-6\">Mike Evangelist, \u201cBehind the Magic Curtain,\u201d <em>The Guardian<\/em>, January 5, 2006, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2006\/jan\/05\/newmedia.media1\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2006\/jan\/05\/newmedia.media1<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-7\">William Norwood Brigance, <em>Speech: Its Techniques and Disciplines in a Free Society<\/em> (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952), 16\u201324. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-8\">Brigance, <em>Speech<\/em>, 16. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-9\">Brigance, <em>Speech<\/em>, 23. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-10\">Michael Barbaro, \u201cDonald Trump Clung to \u2018Birther\u2019 Lie for Years, and Still Isn\u2019t Apologetic,\u201d<em> New York Times<\/em>, September 16, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/09\/17\/us\/politics\/donald-trump-obama-birther.html<\/a>; Callum Borchers, \u201cWhy <em>The New York Times<\/em> Decided It Is Now Okay to Call Donald Trump a Liar,\u201d <em>Washington Post<\/em>, September 22, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-fix\/wp\/2016\/09\/22\/why-the-new-york-times-decided-it-is-now-okay-to-call-donald-trump-a-liar\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-fix\/wp\/2016\/09\/22\/why-the-new-york-times-decided-it-is-now-okay-to-call-donald-trump-a-liar\/<\/a>; David Leonhardt and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cTrump\u2019s Lies,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, December 14, 2017, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2017\/06\/23\/opinion\/trumps-lies.html<\/a>; Larry Buchanan et al., \u201cLie After Lie: Listen to How Trump Built His Alternate Reality,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, February 9, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2021\/02\/09\/us\/trump-voter-fraud-election.html<\/a>; Michael Gold, \u201cTrump\u2019s Debate Performance: Relentless Attacks and Falsehoods,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, June 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2024\/06\/27\/us\/politics\/trump-debate-performance-falsehoods.html<\/a>; Steven Lee Meyers and Stuart A. Thompson, \u201cIn His Second Term, Trump Fuels a \u2018Machinery\u2019 of Misinformation,\u201d <em>New York Times<\/em>, March 24, 2025, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2025\/03\/24\/business\/trump-misinformation-false-claims.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-11\">\u201cCredo for Ethical Communication,\u201d National Communication Association, 1999, revised 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.natcom.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/01\/Credo-for-Ethical-Communication-Revised-Clean-2024.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-12\">Pranshu Verma, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Fake Cases Created by AI in Bid to End His Probation,\u201d <em>Washington Post<\/em>, December 29, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2023\/12\/29\/michael-cohen-ai-google-bard-fake-citations\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2023\/12\/29\/michael-cohen-ai-google-bard-fake-citations<\/a>; Benjamin Weiser and Jonah E. Bromwich, \u201cMichael Cohen Used Artificial Intelligence in Feeding Lawyer Bogus Cases,\u201d<em> New York Times<\/em>, December 29, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/12\/29\/nyregion\/michael-cohen-ai-fake-cases.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2023\/12\/29\/nyregion\/michael-cohen-ai-fake-cases.html<\/a>; Lyle Moran, \u201cLawyer Cites Fake Cases Generated by ChatGPT in Legal Brief,\u201d <em>Legal Dive<\/em>, May 30, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.legaldive.com\/news\/chatgpt-fake-legal-cases-generative-ai-hallucinations\/651557\/<\/a>; Aniya Greene-Santos, \u201cDoes AI Have a Bias Problem?,\u201d <em>NEA Today<\/em>, February 22, 2024, https:\/\/www.nea.org\/nea-today\/all-news-articles\/does-ai-have-bias-problem, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/C8FL-64FN<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-13\">Richard D. Rieke, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Tarla Rai Peterson, <em>Argumentation and Critical Decision Making<\/em>, 7th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2009), 155. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-14\">Travis Caldwell and Amanda Jackson, \u201cA University President Resigned After a Recent Plagiarized Speech. It\u2019s Not the First Commencement Address Lifted,\u201d <em>CNN<\/em>, May 14, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/05\/14\/us\/plagiarism-commencement-speech-south-carolina\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2021\/05\/14\/us\/plagiarism-commencement-speech-south-carolina\/index.html<\/a>; Becky Sullivan, \u201cUniversity of South Carolina President Resigns After Plagiarizing Part of Speech,\u201d <em>NPR<\/em>, May 13, 2021, https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2021\/05\/13\/996523535\/university-of-south-carolina-president-resigns-after-plagiarizing-commencement-s, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/C2GX-DHWW<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-15\">Jason Horowitz, \u201cBehind Melania Trump\u2019s Cribbed Lines, an Ex-Ballerina Who Loved Writing,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, July 20, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/21\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-speech-meredith-mciver.html<\/a>; Brett Neely, \u201cTrump Speechwriter Accepts Responsibility for Using Michelle Obama\u2019s Words,\u201d <em>NPR<\/em>, July 20, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2016\/07\/20\/486758596\/trump-speechwriter-accepts-responsibility-for-using-michelle-obamas-words\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2016\/07\/20\/486758596\/trump-speechwriter-accepts-responsibility-for-using-michelle-obamas-words<\/a>; Maggie Haberman and Michael Barbaro, \u201cHow Melania Trump\u2019s Speech Veered Off Course and Caused an Uproar,\u201d\u00a0<em>New York Times<\/em>, July 19, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/20\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-convention-speech.html?hp&amp;action=click&amp;pgtype=Homepage&amp;clickSource=story-heading&amp;module=b-lede-package-region&amp;region=top-news&amp;WT.nav=top-news\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/07\/20\/us\/politics\/melania-trump-convention-speech.html?hp&amp;action=click&amp;pgtype=Homepage&amp;clickSource=story-heading&amp;module=b-lede-package-region&amp;region=top-news&amp;WT.nav=top-news<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-458-16\">Office of Public Affairs, \u201cSamuel Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years for His Orchestration of Multiple Fraudulent Schemes,\u201d U.S. Department of Justice<em>,<\/em> March 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/samuel-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-his-orchestration-multiple-fraudulent-schemes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/opa\/pr\/samuel-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-his-orchestration-multiple-fraudulent-schemes<\/a>; Rob Wile, \u201cSam Bankman-Fried Sentenced to 25 Years in Prison for Orchestrating FTX Fraud,\u201d <em>NBC News<\/em>, March 28, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/business\/business-news\/sam-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-prison-orchestrating-ftx-fraud-rcna145286\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/business\/business-news\/sam-bankman-fried-sentenced-25-years-prison-orchestrating-ftx-fraud-rcna145286<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-458-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/458"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":82,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/458\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3284,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/458\/revisions\/3284"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/458\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=458"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=458"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=458"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=458"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}