{"id":452,"date":"2025-05-26T16:55:10","date_gmt":"2025-05-26T16:55:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=452"},"modified":"2025-09-07T12:35:18","modified_gmt":"2025-09-07T12:35:18","slug":"unproductive-public-discourse-and-the-politics-of-polarization","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/chapter\/unproductive-public-discourse-and-the-politics-of-polarization\/","title":{"raw":"Unproductive Public Discourse and the Politics of Polarization","rendered":"Unproductive Public Discourse and the Politics of Polarization"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the public sphere and the role of public discourse within that sphere.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze the qualities of unproductive discourse.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify contemporary obstacles to productive communication.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Are you comfortable talking about controversial topics or politics, especially with people who disagree with you? Do you happily join in when someone mentions the current US president, abortion, or gun rights?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you\u2019re like most Americans, the answer is no. According to a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId45\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2023 Pew Research <\/span><span class=\"import-url\">Center <\/span><span class=\"import-url\">survey<\/span><\/a><\/span>, 61% of US adults\u2014including both Democrats and Republicans\u2014\u201csay having political conversations with people they disagree with is generally \u2018stressful and frustrating.\u2019\u201d Relatedly, that same survey found that 84% of adults say \u201cpolitical debate has become less respectful over the last several years,\u201d and \u201c78% say political debate has become less fact-based.\u201d[footnote]Pew Research Center, \u201cAmericans\u2019 Feelings About Politics, Polarization and the Tone of Political Discourse,\u201d<em>\u00a0Americans\u2019 Dismal Views of the Nation\u2019s Politics<\/em>, September 19, 2023, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/politics\/2023\/09\/19\/americans-feelings-about-politics-polarization-and-the-tone-of-political-discourse\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D<\/a>.[\/footnote] Consequently, many of us avoid these conversations, sticking to safer topics like the weather or sports.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_56\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-56\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21.png\" alt=\"Drawing of two figures facing each other with megaphones as heads\" width=\"500\" height=\"339\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/vectors\/argument-loud-discussion-conflict-6080057\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay, <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Pixabay license<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">But even some previously \u201csafe\u201d forums and topics have become polarized and heated. Since the 2020 COVID-19 crisis, for example, many local school board meetings (that were \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId46\" href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">once orderly, even boring<\/span><\/a><\/span>\u201d) have erupted into angry exchanges over mask mandates, transgender students, and teaching about race.[footnote]Stephen Groves, \u201cTears, Politics, and Money: School Boards Become Battle Zones,\u201d <em>Associated Press<\/em>, July 10, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009<\/a>.[\/footnote] In 2014, the most popular form of entertainment\u2014video games\u2014became particularly contentious. Using the social media hashtag \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId48\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Gamergate<\/span><\/a><\/span>,\u201d \u201cthousands of people in the games community began to systematically harass, heckle, threaten, and dox several outspoken feminist women in their midst.\u201d[footnote]Aja Romano, \u201cWhat We Still Haven\u2019t Learned from Gamergate,\u201d <em>Vox<\/em>, January 7, 2021, https:\/\/www.vox.com\/culture\/2020\/1\/20\/20808875\/gamergate-lessons-cultural-impact-changes-harassment-laws, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY<\/a>.[\/footnote] Even sports have prompted vehement disputes over players\u2019 protests of police violence, over vaccination requirements, and over transgender athletes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter, we diagnose the issues that plague public communication and consider how <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">you<\/em><\/span> can fix them. We begin by defining the public, public sphere, and public discourse. We then highlight problems with public communication, including the qualities of unproductive discourse. We end by identifying obstacles to more productive exchanges. Our goal is for you to reflect on how and why we, as democratic participants, so often publicly agree or disagree in ways that harm our relationships, public institutions, and democracy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Problems with Public Communication<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Robust disagreement is necessary for a healthy democracy. Multiple, divergent perspectives and arguments allow for better discussions of public policy. Too often, however, our disagreements devolve into yelling matches and oppositional sides. To diagnose how and why, let\u2019s begin by examining what type of speech counts as public discourse and what elements in that discourse are cause for concern.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>The Public, the Public Sphere, and Public Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_57\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-57\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22.png\" alt=\"Five people sit around a table talking while one man stands and listens\" width=\"500\" height=\"327\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/ilri\/7536853126\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by International Livestock Research Institute via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-ND<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">For this textbook, a <strong class=\"import-b\">public<\/strong> refers to a collection of people who are joined together in a cause of common concern. Often a public works together to address an issue or question that affects their community. As a college student, you may consider the many publics of which you are likely a member: your residence hall or fraternity; your clubs, athletic teams, or student governance organizations; and even your major. Student athletes at your university, for example, may function as a public when they discuss, together, how they can travel to away games without missing too many classes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In our definition, a public is distinctly different from a group of individuals. We might conceive of their differences in the following ways:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Individuals in a Group<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Members of the Public<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">View themselves as separate entities or opposed sides<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Recognize their interdependency and common group identity<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Are driven by their own interests or needs<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Consider their own needs as well as those of fellow members, especially when needs conflict<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Usually believe their needs or concerns are in competition with other people\u2019s needs and concerns<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Acknowledge the impacts of problems and attempted solutions beyond their own personal experiences and interests<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 26.5pt;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Think in terms of \u201cme\u201d versus \u201cthem\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Think in terms of \u201cus\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 26.5pt;\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Analogy: Competitors on a reality television show<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Analogy: Members of a sports team<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Our definition of a public draws heavily on the concept of the public sphere as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId50\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PS3N-H2AH\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">articulated by the sociologist and philosopher J\u00fcrgen Habermas<\/span><\/a><\/span>. For Habermas, the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">public sphere<\/strong><\/span> is the gathering of community members to discuss matters of common concern. The public talks, argues, and reasons together as equals, disregarding social and economic inequalities among participants, ideally arriving at a more fulsome understanding of the issues.[footnote]J\u00fcrgen Habermas, <em>The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society <\/em>(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When a public comes together to discuss matters of shared concern, they participate in public discourse. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Public discourse<\/strong><\/span> refers to rhetoric that is publicly offered to address a significant community concern or issue. You likely hear public discourse on your campus about national politics, over local community projects, and regarding university student services ranging from dining options to financial aid. Several factors make a discourse public rather than private:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>the setting and participants (it is visible and accessible to anyone implicated by the decisions made there);<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the topics discussed (they impact a whole community); and ideally,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the nature of the communication (it is concerned with the common good rather than the desires of a few individuals).<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">You can see, then, that \u201cpublic,\u201d the \u201cpublic sphere,\u201d and \u201cpublic discourse\u201d involve many members who may vary considerably from each other but who come together to discuss their shared concerns.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Growing Concerns About the State of Our Public Communication<\/em><\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_58\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"183\"]<img class=\"wp-image-58\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23-219x300.png\" alt=\"Picture of John Dewey\" width=\"183\" height=\"250\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/john-dewey-cph3a51565-49d8e5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">John Dewey<\/a> via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When we look at the current state of our public discourse, we see we\u2019ve developed bad habits. Scholars who have voiced concerns about our communication may help us understand what, precisely, is wrong with the way we talk to each other.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">1927:<\/strong><\/span> The efforts to diagnose and correct our public discourse might be traced back to American philosopher and education advocate John Dewey and his book <a class=\"rId52\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YY69-78FE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">The Public and Its Problems<\/em><\/a>. Dewey contended that more and better communication is necessary to improve the public and, hence, democracy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n\u201cThe essential need, in other words, is the improvement of methods of debate, discussion, and persuasion. That is the problem of the public.\u201d[footnote]John Dewey, <em>The Public and Its Problems<\/em> (Project Gutenberg, 2023), 208, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/71000\/71000-h\/71000-h.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/71000\/71000-h\/71000-h.htm<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">1998:<\/strong><\/span> In the twentieth century, political theorist Benjamin Barber pointed to broadcast media as symbolic of more modern problems with public discourse in his book <a class=\"rId53\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/V7M8-9XXZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n\u201cTalk radio is loudly public without being in the least civil, though it is seductively entertaining. Unfortunately, its divisive rant is a perfect model of everything that civility is not: people talking without listening, confirming dogmas, not questioning them, convicting rather than convincing adversaries.\u201d[footnote]Benjamin R. Barber, <em>A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em> (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 115.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">2021:<\/strong><\/span> A twenty-first-century characterization of the problems of public discourse was offered by political theorist Maxime Lepoutre in their book <a class=\"rId54\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/R6G8-TAEY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">Democratic Speech in Divided Times<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n\u201cWe find a public sphere saturated with emotional appeals, including intensely negative emotions such as rage and resentment. Instead of mutual respect, public speakers routinely use their airtime to ridicule, demean, or vilify others. And where sincerity should reign, campaigns of misinformation instead proliferate unimpeded.\u201d[footnote]Maxime Lepoutre, <em>Democratic Speech in Divided Times<\/em> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 2.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">How would you characterize US public discourse today? Would you agree that when you hear public figures talk about hot topics, you mostly hear ranting, emotional accusations, and ridicule? In this book, we label such talk \u201cunproductive discourse.\u201d We turn next to the central features of unproductive discourse that make it so problematic.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Qualities of Unproductive Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Unproductive discourse<\/strong><\/span> is purposefully sensational public communication designed to promote division and to misrepresent the complexities of public issues. It features poor arguments that appeal to the least common denominator, name-calling that substitutes for nuanced analysis, and an emphasis on points of division rather than points of agreement. In fact, when we look across multiple examples, several such qualities repeatedly appear. These qualities include, but are not restricted to, the following: division, dichotomous thinking, combativeness, certainty, lack of listening, winning, distrust, hierarchical communication, dogmatism, and misinformation.[footnote]Conor Murray, \u201cHow Drag Queens Became a Right-Wing Target\u2014from Alex Jones to Tucker Carlson\u2014with These States Trying to Ban Story Hours and Shows,\u201d <em>Forbes<\/em>, February 3, 2023, https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/conormurray\/2023\/02\/03\/how-drag-queens-became-a-right-wing-target-from-alex-jones-to-tucker-carlsonwith-these-states-trying-to-ban-story-hours-and-shows\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard<\/a>.[\/footnote] We consider each quality in box 2.1.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 2.1 Qualities of Unproductive Discourse<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Division<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Highlights and accentuates differences among participants and their positions.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYou aren\u2019t from around here.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThey just weren\u2019t raised like us.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Dichotomous thinking<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Features debate between two (and only two) diametrically opposed and extreme positions instead of exploring additional perspectives or middle ground.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWhich side are you on?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cMy idea will help women, and yours will hurt them.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Combativeness<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Utilizes aggressive behavior toward other participants and alternative perspectives, such as repeated interrupting, emotionally charged labels and terms, yelling, and personal attacks. Lacks empathy toward other participants and views dissenting opinions as the opposition to be defeated.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cI can\u2019t listen to your stupid ideas anymore.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWhy should we listen to a college dropout?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Certainty<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Exhibits sureness about a position without recognizing its weaknesses or drawbacks. Lacks self-reflexivity or room for doubt.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYou\u2019re wrong.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cMy idea will benefit everyone.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Lack of listening<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Only listens to an alternative perspective to find weaknesses in it. Uses questions as veiled arguments or as attempts to humiliate other participants. Instead of truly considering the fellow participants, remarks seem directed at a third-party judge, moderator, or camera audience.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cIsn\u2019t it true that\u2026?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cCan you even believe this guy?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Winning<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Fixates on getting one\u2019s way, rather than learning or the common good, as the goal. At its worst, this form of communication uses any means necessary to win, such as providing false or misleading illusions, quoting statements out of context, and misstating or exaggerating the facts. Privileges emotion over logic and proof.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYour proposal will bankrupt <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">every<\/em><\/span> small family business.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cIf you get your way, our country will be ruined.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Distrust<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Suspects other participants\u2019 motives or goals. Presumes they have a hidden agenda and thus lacks faith in the honesty or authenticity of what they say.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWho are you really working for?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAre you doing this for the spotlight?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Hierarchical communication<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Discourages communication among invested community members and instead encourages communication from the \u201ctop\u201d decision-makers (officials, leaders, spokespersons, or experts) down, which subjugates everyday individuals\u2019 preferences or insights.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cLet\u2019s listen to the mayor, who actually knows what she\u2019s talking about.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAre you just going from experience, or do you actually have a degree on this topic?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Dogmatism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Features familiar and even predictable talking points as well as entrenched, predetermined positions.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cBefore I answer that, I\u2019d like to make two points.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAs I\u2019ve said before\u2026\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Misinformation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">Unintentionally propagates inaccurate or false claims that lack sufficient or valid evidence and\/or identifiable and credible sources.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cEverybody knows that\u2026\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAn insider told me\u2026\u201d<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 2.2 Unproductive Discourse in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2715\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-2715 \" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c.jpg\" alt=\"Drag queen reading a book to children\" width=\"500\" height=\"334\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/multnomahcountylibrary\/54609585739\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Multnomah County Library via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-ND<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAn example of problematic public dialogue was found in debates and legislation over drag shows. Although drag and drag performances have a long history, concerns over children\u2019s exposure to them became prominently voiced in the US after 2017. A nonprofit organization called <a class=\"rId56\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/VF2R-PKVA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Drag Story Hour<\/a> began organizing events where drag queens read books to children. While the goal was to promote literacy, inclusivity, and diversity, some people feared possible negative effects.\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Instead of engaging in productive discussions about the reading hours, however, the disagreement escalated into unsubstantiated accusations and threats. Vocal opponents featured <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">misinformation, distrust, combativeness, and certainty<\/strong><\/span> in their critiques.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId57\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">According to a <\/span><em class=\"import-url-i\">Forbes<\/em><span class=\"import-url\"> article<\/span><\/a><\/span>, conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, for instance, falsely accused drag queens of \u201chaving their way\u201d with kids during story hours.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fox News personality Tucker Carlson told his audience that story hours are intended to \u201cindoctrinate and sexualize children.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Baseless claims of drag queens \u201cgrooming\u201d children spread on social media outlets like TikTok. Several states introduced, and some passed, legislation banning or criminalizing drag shows where children might be present, with some labeling the shows as \u201cobscene\u201d content.[footnote]Ricky Cornish, host, <em>Pride Today,<\/em> \u201cJinx Monsoon &amp; BenDeLaCreme Defend Drag Queens Against Republicans,\u201d posted October 17, 2023, by Advocate Channel, YouTube, <a href=\"http:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_60\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"281\"]<img class=\"wp-image-60\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25.png\" alt=\"Drag queen BenDeLaCreme talking into a microphone\" width=\"281\" height=\"500\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BenDeLaCreme_All_Stars_1.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">BenDeLaCreme All Stars<\/a> by hinnk via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-sb\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">In response, drag queens and supporters utilized <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">dichotomous thinking, division, misinformation<\/strong><\/span>, and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">combativeness<\/strong><\/span> in their self-defense.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>In late 2024, popular drag queen performer Jinx Monsoon, for example, stated that conservatives are \u201cliterally perpetuating lies.\u201d She added, \u201cTheir whole agenda right now, it\u2019s just all such blatant hypocrisy. Everything they accuse us of, there\u2019s no data that supports it, and then they get caught doing the thing that they say queer people are doing.\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId59\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">same video<\/span><\/a><\/span>, drag performer BenDeLaCreme argued, \u201cDrag is not to be feared. Drag is about love, until you cross us. Then you better fear us, because we are strong. So back down or watch out, is how I feel about it.\u201d[footnote]Jay Valle, \u201cMeet the \u2018RuPublicans\u2019: GOP Lawmakers Are Reimagined as AI-Generated Drag Queens,\u201d <em>NBC News<\/em>, April 12, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/nbc-out\/out-pop-culture\/meet-rupublicans-gop-lawmakers-are-reimagined-ai-generated-drag-queens-rcna79136\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/nbc-out\/out-pop-culture\/meet-rupublicans-gop-lawmakers-are-reimagined-ai-generated-drag-queens-rcna79136<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In March 2023, two drag supporters poked fun at conservative leaders through a comedic but combative Instagram account called \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/rupublicans\/?hl=en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">RuPublicans<\/span><\/a><\/span>\u201d that promoted misinformation by featuring AI-created images of GOP leaders in drag.[footnote]Gino Spocchia, \u201cConservatives Furious as Armed Men Turn Up to Protect Drag Performers at Texas Brunch Event,\u201d <em>Independent<\/em>, August 30, 2024, https:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/americas\/dallas-drag-brunch-texas-protest-b2155624.html, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Defense of drag became more intimidating at a 2022 drag brunch in Texas, where supporters guarded the venue against protesters by <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId60\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">dressing largely in black and holding AR<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">-<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">15 style weapons<\/span><\/a><\/span>.[footnote]We derived these qualities in part by considering the inverse or opposite of the qualities of \u201ccivil talk\u201d proposed by Benjamin Barber in <em>A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em> (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998). We return to Barber\u2019s qualities of civil talk in the next chapter.[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-sb\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">Rather than productively discuss the potential benefits of, and concerns about, Drag Story Hour, several communicators used an array of unproductive discourse qualities. Consequently, they reduced the issue to two incompatible sides, depicted each other as opponents to be defeated, and provided little education about the issues of literacy, diversity, safety, and modeling.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Impacts of Unproductive Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Unproductive discourse offers some benefits. It often captures our attention and entertains us. Catchy one-liners that require little knowledge can be exciting and fun to watch. Such rhetoric tends to evoke strong emotions from listeners, stirring people to care about issues they might otherwise ignore. It can also bring a sense of clarity to an issue by contrasting two sides.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image26.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"135.866666666667px\" height=\"135.866666666667px\" \/>However, the harmful outcomes produced by unproductive discourse overwhelm any advantages. Unproductive discourse typically lives up to its name in that it is, well, unproductive. It produces little new or reliable information, nor real understanding, as to why the participants or sides fundamentally disagree. Instead, it can <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">mis<\/em><\/span>educate us, since it overly simplifies complex issues and participants, overlooks additional perspectives, and spreads false information.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Finally, unproductive discourse discourages us from becoming civically engaged because it emphasizes our divisions and turns us into spectators rather than participants. We are reduced to sitting on the sidelines and cheering or booing the participants. It\u2019s not surprising that many of us opt out of the spectacle altogether, developing cynical attitudes about politics and civic affairs.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">So what needs to change? The next section identifies recurrent obstacles to productive discourse that need to be addressed.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Obstacles to Productive Communication<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">There was never a golden era of respectful public discourse to which we hope to return. But there are at least five aspects of the situation today that exacerbate the problems: social media, the news media, the strategic use of incivility and disinformation, the marketing of ideas, and our own reluctant participation in democratic processes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Social Media<\/em><\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_62\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-62\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27.png\" alt=\"Close-up of a smartphone screen displaying a grid of social media app icons, including Vine, LinkedIn, Instagram, Google+, Pinterest, Vimeo, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Tumblr, WhatsApp, and Skype, against a dark background with small blue lights.\" width=\"500\" height=\"363\" \/> <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/media-social-media-apps-998990\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Pixelkult via Pixabay,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Pixabay license<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Have you ever scrolled through social media and read a post that made you angry? Did you reach out to the person who posted it to thoughtfully discuss the topic? Or did you leave an angry comment or emoji, or even unfriend the person, and then move on to the next post? If you chose the latter, you\u2019re not fully to blame.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Social media platforms encourage users to post things that will garner attention and emotional reactions. For public issues, that often means provocative or controversial claims that stir viewers\u2019 emotions but rarely expand their understanding. Pair that posting incentive with communication restrictions (such as the number of characters allowed or typical post lengths), and you can see why social media are not designed to facilitate thoughtful discussions. Instead, they encourage, at worst, angry invective or, at best, an entertaining escape or mindless scrolling.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nArtist and writer Jenny Odell claims, \u201cThe platforms that we use to communicate with each other do not encourage listening. Instead they reward shouting and oversimple reaction: of having a \u2018take\u2019 after having read a single headline.\u201d[footnote]Jenny Odell, <em>How to Do Nothing: Resisting the Attention Economy<\/em> (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2019), 23.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Even people who refrain from making or commenting on posts are affected by the social media they consume. Algorithms that influence which posts we see tend to result in streams that largely reflect and reinforce our beliefs[footnote]Brendan Nyhan et al., \u201cLike-Minded Sources on Facebook Are Prevalent but Not Polarizing,\u201d <em>Nature<\/em> 620 (2023): 137\u2013144, <a href=\"http:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-023-06297-w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-023-06297-w<\/a>.[\/footnote] and even steer us toward posts that feature anger and animosity.[footnote]Smitha Mill et al., \u201cEngagement, User Satisfaction, and the Amplification of Divisive Content on Social Media,\u201d <em>arXiv<\/em>, December 22, 2023, <a href=\"http:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2305.16941\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2305.16941<\/a>.[\/footnote] Together, the types of posts we are exposed to and the content they highlight tend to sow oversimplification and emotional reactions and discourage curiosity, empathy, or listening.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>News Media<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Similar to social media, some news media frame, cover, and discuss issues in ways that emphasize conflict and talking points rather than depth and nuance. Cable news programs (e.g., FOX, CNN), in particular, frequently feature verbal fighting between people with differing views. Such news shows attract viewers, but they often make issues appear too immense or too unattractive for viewers to meaningfully engage.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nNews media shows on cable television tend to validate and valorize guests who stoke controversy and disagreement.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Incivility and Disinformation as Strategies<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Two additional related, and more disheartening, obstacles are when public actors purposefully use ethically suspect tactics to impede meaningful discussions. One such tactic is what professor of public policy Susan Herbst calls \u201cincivility as strategy.\u201d[footnote]Susan Herbst, \u201cChange Through Debate,\u201d <em>Inside HigherEd,<\/em> October 4, 2009, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250829140151\/https:\/\/www.insidehighered.com\/views\/2009\/10\/05\/change-through-debate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250829140151\/https:\/\/www.insidehighered.com\/views\/2009\/10\/05\/change-through-debate<\/a>.[\/footnote] Most of us were probably taught growing up to avoid <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">incivility<\/strong><\/span>, or offensive and rude behavior. Some public figures, however, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">purposefully<\/em><\/span> choose incivility to gain attention and to silence detractors. Comments from radio and television personalities come to mind as a broad example, or attending a community forum and yelling to prevent a speaker from being heard.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The other tactic is the spread of disinformation. Misinformation is the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">un<\/em><\/span>intentional spread of inaccurate or false claims that lack sufficient or valid evidence and\/or identifiable and credible sources. It is listed as a quality of unproductive discourse because it hurts deliberation when speakers fail to double-check the validity of their information before passing it on. Even more harmful, however, is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">disinformation<\/strong><\/span>, which refers to the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deliberate<\/em><\/span> attempt to spread wrong information to mislead listeners. Like incivility, some public actors use disinformation strategically to attract support for their ideas or followers for their campaigns.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Box 2.3 Misinformation and Disinformation in COVID-19 Rhetoric<\/strong>\r\n\r\nWe can find examples of misinformation and disinformation in some of the public discourse around the COVID-19 pandemic. Initially, President Donald Trump <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">downplayed<\/strong><\/span> the virus\u2019s threat and even promoted drinking disinfectant to combat it despite <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">no supporting evidence<\/strong><\/span>. He and others in the White House also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId63\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">suggested<\/span><\/a><\/span>, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">without evidence<\/strong><\/span>, that the virus was released by a lab in Wuhan, China.[footnote]Benjamin Bell and Fergal Gallagher, \u201cWho Is Spreading COVID-19 Misinformation and Why,\u201d <em>ABC News<\/em>, May 26, 2020, https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/spreading-covid-19-misinformation\/story?id=70615995, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5<\/a>.[\/footnote] In the summer of 2020, the US military capitalized on this false belief through a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId64\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">disinformation social media campaign<\/span><\/a><\/span> that targeted the Philippines. To weaken China\u2019s influence there, the military created <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">false accounts<\/strong><\/span> that mimicked Filipinos and propagated <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">lies<\/strong><\/span> about the virus and the vaccine under a slogan (in the language of Tagalog) that declared \u201cChina is the virus.\u201d[footnote]Chris Bing and Joel Schectman, \u201cPentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China During Pandemic,\u201d <em>Reuters<\/em>, June 14, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When politicians and powerful actors purposefully impede discussion and decision-making, we need different approaches to public discourse.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Marketing Ideas Rather Than Working Toward Compromise<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The political arena has, in many ways, become more like corporate <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">marketing<\/strong><\/span>, or the deliberate promoting and selling of products or services to consumers. Political strategists package politicians (especially candidates) and their ideas for an American consumer market. We watch thirty-second television commercials that advertise their family lives and values (with which almost no one disagrees), look at their official websites (which are nearly always clad in patriotic colors), and read memorable posts designed for social media. Civic engagement becomes reduced to simply choosing which candidate to \u201cbuy\u201d with your vote\u2014and later to choose which prepackaged policy to support. In the process, the public welfare becomes fragmented into demographic and interest groups, and individuals are reduced to passive consumers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Reluctant Participation in Democratic Processes<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, we have ourselves to blame. How often do you research current issues? Contact your governmental representatives? Hold lively and respectful discussions with friends and family about controversial topics?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As members of a democracy, we too often do the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Sit back and watch as decisions are made for us.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Believe we are too busy to keep up with the issues or get involved.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Defer to experts and authorities, wrongly assuming their powerful positions or knowledge will somehow enable them to promote the public welfare better than the public itself.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Copy some of the more destructive discourse practices we see so frequently. We think that participating in a democracy means adopting a boorish persona and using the qualities of unproductive discourse.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Fortunately, there are ways to speak much more productively to bring about the change we wish to see in our institutions and communities. To improve our public discourse, many scholars and public thinkers have offered solutions to increase the quality of our public exchanges, and we outline these in the next chapter.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter outlined the contemporary state of our public discourse. It explored the qualities of unproductive discourse, and it encouraged you to also think about a rhetoric\u2019s broader impacts on the public sphere when evaluating communication. In this chapter, you learned the following:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Public discourse today is largely problematic. It frequently features qualities we associate with unproductive discourse, partly due to the obstacles that prevent speakers from engaging in more productive forms of communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Unproductive public discourse is characterized by the following features: division, dichotomous thinking, combativeness, certainty, lack of listening, winning, distrust, hierarchical communication, dogmatism, and misinformation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Obstacles to productive discourse abound. They include social media, the news media, the strategies of incivility and disinformation, the treatment of the political arena like a marketing campaign, and the inertia or disillusionment of many everyday people who choose not to become involved and change our public conversations.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\ncertainty\r\ncombativeness\r\ndichotomous thinking\r\ndisinformation\r\ndistrust\r\ndivision\r\ndogmatism\r\nhierarchical communication\r\nincivility\r\nlack of listening\r\nmarketing\r\nmisinformation\r\npublic\r\npublic discourse\r\npublic sphere\r\nunproductive discourse\r\nwinning\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>What is the public sphere, and how is it related to public discourse?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the qualities of unproductive discourse?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are some obstacles to productive discourse?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Who are examples of public figures who practice unproductive discourse?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do you agree that in our contemporary culture we mostly hear and use unproductive discourse? Why do you think this is?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Find an example of unproductive discourse. Which qualities do the participants exhibit? How so?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-pf\">Students will:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the public sphere and the role of public discourse within that sphere.<\/li>\n<li>Analyze the qualities of unproductive discourse.<\/li>\n<li>Identify contemporary obstacles to productive communication.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 0pt;\">Are you comfortable talking about controversial topics or politics, especially with people who disagree with you? Do you happily join in when someone mentions the current US president, abortion, or gun rights?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">If you\u2019re like most Americans, the answer is no. According to a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId45\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">2023 Pew Research <\/span><span class=\"import-url\">Center <\/span><span class=\"import-url\">survey<\/span><\/a><\/span>, 61% of US adults\u2014including both Democrats and Republicans\u2014\u201csay having political conversations with people they disagree with is generally \u2018stressful and frustrating.\u2019\u201d Relatedly, that same survey found that 84% of adults say \u201cpolitical debate has become less respectful over the last several years,\u201d and \u201c78% say political debate has become less fact-based.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Pew Research Center, \u201cAmericans\u2019 Feelings About Politics, Polarization and the Tone of Political Discourse,\u201d\u00a0Americans\u2019 Dismal Views of the Nation\u2019s Politics, September 19, 2023, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/politics\/2023\/09\/19\/americans-feelings-about-politics-polarization-and-the-tone-of-political-discourse\/, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-1\" href=\"#footnote-452-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Consequently, many of us avoid these conversations, sticking to safer topics like the weather or sports.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_56\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-56\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-56\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21.png\" alt=\"Drawing of two figures facing each other with megaphones as heads\" width=\"500\" height=\"339\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21.png 578w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21-300x203.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21-65x44.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21-225x153.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image21-350x237.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-56\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/vectors\/argument-loud-discussion-conflict-6080057\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Mohamed Hassan via Pixabay, <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Pixabay license<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">But even some previously \u201csafe\u201d forums and topics have become polarized and heated. Since the 2020 COVID-19 crisis, for example, many local school board meetings (that were \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId46\" href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">once orderly, even boring<\/span><\/a><\/span>\u201d) have erupted into angry exchanges over mask mandates, transgender students, and teaching about race.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stephen Groves, \u201cTears, Politics, and Money: School Boards Become Battle Zones,\u201d Associated Press, July 10, 2021, https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-2\" href=\"#footnote-452-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> In 2014, the most popular form of entertainment\u2014video games\u2014became particularly contentious. Using the social media hashtag \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId48\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">Gamergate<\/span><\/a><\/span>,\u201d \u201cthousands of people in the games community began to systematically harass, heckle, threaten, and dox several outspoken feminist women in their midst.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Aja Romano, \u201cWhat We Still Haven\u2019t Learned from Gamergate,\u201d Vox, January 7, 2021, https:\/\/www.vox.com\/culture\/2020\/1\/20\/20808875\/gamergate-lessons-cultural-impact-changes-harassment-laws, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-3\" href=\"#footnote-452-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Even sports have prompted vehement disputes over players\u2019 protests of police violence, over vaccination requirements, and over transgender athletes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In this chapter, we diagnose the issues that plague public communication and consider how <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">you<\/em><\/span> can fix them. We begin by defining the public, public sphere, and public discourse. We then highlight problems with public communication, including the qualities of unproductive discourse. We end by identifying obstacles to more productive exchanges. Our goal is for you to reflect on how and why we, as democratic participants, so often publicly agree or disagree in ways that harm our relationships, public institutions, and democracy.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">The Problems with Public Communication<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Robust disagreement is necessary for a healthy democracy. Multiple, divergent perspectives and arguments allow for better discussions of public policy. Too often, however, our disagreements devolve into yelling matches and oppositional sides. To diagnose how and why, let\u2019s begin by examining what type of speech counts as public discourse and what elements in that discourse are cause for concern.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>The Public, the Public Sphere, and Public Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_57\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-57\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-57\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22.png\" alt=\"Five people sit around a table talking while one man stands and listens\" width=\"500\" height=\"327\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22.png 788w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22-300x196.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22-768x503.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22-225x147.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image22-350x229.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-57\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/ilri\/7536853126\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by International Livestock Research Institute via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-ND<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">For this textbook, a <strong class=\"import-b\">public<\/strong> refers to a collection of people who are joined together in a cause of common concern. Often a public works together to address an issue or question that affects their community. As a college student, you may consider the many publics of which you are likely a member: your residence hall or fraternity; your clubs, athletic teams, or student governance organizations; and even your major. Student athletes at your university, for example, may function as a public when they discuss, together, how they can travel to away games without missing too many classes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">In our definition, a public is distinctly different from a group of individuals. We might conceive of their differences in the following ways:<\/p>\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Individuals in a Group<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-tch\"><strong>Members of the Public<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">View themselves as separate entities or opposed sides<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Recognize their interdependency and common group identity<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Are driven by their own interests or needs<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Consider their own needs as well as those of fellow members, especially when needs conflict<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Usually believe their needs or concerns are in competition with other people\u2019s needs and concerns<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Acknowledge the impacts of problems and attempted solutions beyond their own personal experiences and interests<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 26.5pt;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Think in terms of \u201cme\u201d versus \u201cthem\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Think in terms of \u201cus\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\" style=\"height: 26.5pt;\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Analogy: Competitors on a reality television show<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Analogy: Members of a sports team<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"import-p\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Our definition of a public draws heavily on the concept of the public sphere as <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId50\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/PS3N-H2AH\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">articulated by the sociologist and philosopher J\u00fcrgen Habermas<\/span><\/a><\/span>. For Habermas, the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">public sphere<\/strong><\/span> is the gathering of community members to discuss matters of common concern. The public talks, argues, and reasons together as equals, disregarding social and economic inequalities among participants, ideally arriving at a more fulsome understanding of the issues.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"J\u00fcrgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).\" id=\"return-footnote-452-4\" href=\"#footnote-452-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When a public comes together to discuss matters of shared concern, they participate in public discourse. <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Public discourse<\/strong><\/span> refers to rhetoric that is publicly offered to address a significant community concern or issue. You likely hear public discourse on your campus about national politics, over local community projects, and regarding university student services ranging from dining options to financial aid. Several factors make a discourse public rather than private:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>the setting and participants (it is visible and accessible to anyone implicated by the decisions made there);<\/li>\n<li>the topics discussed (they impact a whole community); and ideally,<\/li>\n<li>the nature of the communication (it is concerned with the common good rather than the desires of a few individuals).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p class=\"import-pcon\">You can see, then, that \u201cpublic,\u201d the \u201cpublic sphere,\u201d and \u201cpublic discourse\u201d involve many members who may vary considerably from each other but who come together to discuss their shared concerns.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Growing Concerns About the State of Our Public Communication<\/em><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_58\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-58\" style=\"width: 183px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-58\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23-219x300.png\" alt=\"Picture of John Dewey\" width=\"183\" height=\"250\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23-219x300.png 219w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23-65x89.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23-225x308.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image23.png 314w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-58\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/picryl.com\/media\/john-dewey-cph3a51565-49d8e5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">John Dewey<\/a> via Picryl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/public-domain\/pdm\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Public Domain<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">When we look at the current state of our public discourse, we see we\u2019ve developed bad habits. Scholars who have voiced concerns about our communication may help us understand what, precisely, is wrong with the way we talk to each other.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">1927:<\/strong><\/span> The efforts to diagnose and correct our public discourse might be traced back to American philosopher and education advocate John Dewey and his book <a class=\"rId52\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/YY69-78FE\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">The Public and Its Problems<\/em><\/a>. Dewey contended that more and better communication is necessary to improve the public and, hence, democracy.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>\u201cThe essential need, in other words, is the improvement of methods of debate, discussion, and persuasion. That is the problem of the public.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (Project Gutenberg, 2023), 208, https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/71000\/71000-h\/71000-h.htm.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-5\" href=\"#footnote-452-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">1998:<\/strong><\/span> In the twentieth century, political theorist Benjamin Barber pointed to broadcast media as symbolic of more modern problems with public discourse in his book <a class=\"rId53\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/V7M8-9XXZ\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>\u201cTalk radio is loudly public without being in the least civil, though it is seductively entertaining. Unfortunately, its divisive rant is a perfect model of everything that civility is not: people talking without listening, confirming dogmas, not questioning them, convicting rather than convincing adversaries.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Benjamin R. Barber, A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 115.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-6\" href=\"#footnote-452-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">2021:<\/strong><\/span> A twenty-first-century characterization of the problems of public discourse was offered by political theorist Maxime Lepoutre in their book <a class=\"rId54\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/R6G8-TAEY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><em class=\"import-url-i\">Democratic Speech in Divided Times<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>\u201cWe find a public sphere saturated with emotional appeals, including intensely negative emotions such as rage and resentment. Instead of mutual respect, public speakers routinely use their airtime to ridicule, demean, or vilify others. And where sincerity should reign, campaigns of misinformation instead proliferate unimpeded.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Maxime Lepoutre, Democratic Speech in Divided Times (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 2.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-7\" href=\"#footnote-452-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">How would you characterize US public discourse today? Would you agree that when you hear public figures talk about hot topics, you mostly hear ranting, emotional accusations, and ridicule? In this book, we label such talk \u201cunproductive discourse.\u201d We turn next to the central features of unproductive discourse that make it so problematic.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Qualities of Unproductive Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Unproductive discourse<\/strong><\/span> is purposefully sensational public communication designed to promote division and to misrepresent the complexities of public issues. It features poor arguments that appeal to the least common denominator, name-calling that substitutes for nuanced analysis, and an emphasis on points of division rather than points of agreement. In fact, when we look across multiple examples, several such qualities repeatedly appear. These qualities include, but are not restricted to, the following: division, dichotomous thinking, combativeness, certainty, lack of listening, winning, distrust, hierarchical communication, dogmatism, and misinformation.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Conor Murray, \u201cHow Drag Queens Became a Right-Wing Target\u2014from Alex Jones to Tucker Carlson\u2014with These States Trying to Ban Story Hours and Shows,\u201d Forbes, February 3, 2023, https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/conormurray\/2023\/02\/03\/how-drag-queens-became-a-right-wing-target-from-alex-jones-to-tucker-carlsonwith-these-states-trying-to-ban-story-hours-and-shows\/, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-8\" href=\"#footnote-452-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a> We consider each quality in box 2.1.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 2.1 Qualities of Unproductive Discourse<\/strong><\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Division<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Highlights and accentuates differences among participants and their positions.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYou aren\u2019t from around here.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cThey just weren\u2019t raised like us.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Dichotomous thinking<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Features debate between two (and only two) diametrically opposed and extreme positions instead of exploring additional perspectives or middle ground.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWhich side are you on?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cMy idea will help women, and yours will hurt them.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Combativeness<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Utilizes aggressive behavior toward other participants and alternative perspectives, such as repeated interrupting, emotionally charged labels and terms, yelling, and personal attacks. Lacks empathy toward other participants and views dissenting opinions as the opposition to be defeated.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cI can\u2019t listen to your stupid ideas anymore.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWhy should we listen to a college dropout?\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Certainty<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Exhibits sureness about a position without recognizing its weaknesses or drawbacks. Lacks self-reflexivity or room for doubt.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYou\u2019re wrong.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cMy idea will benefit everyone.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Lack of listening<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Only listens to an alternative perspective to find weaknesses in it. Uses questions as veiled arguments or as attempts to humiliate other participants. Instead of truly considering the fellow participants, remarks seem directed at a third-party judge, moderator, or camera audience.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cIsn\u2019t it true that\u2026?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cCan you even believe this guy?\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Winning<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Fixates on getting one\u2019s way, rather than learning or the common good, as the goal. At its worst, this form of communication uses any means necessary to win, such as providing false or misleading illusions, quoting statements out of context, and misstating or exaggerating the facts. Privileges emotion over logic and proof.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cYour proposal will bankrupt <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">every<\/em><\/span> small family business.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cIf you get your way, our country will be ruined.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Distrust<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Suspects other participants\u2019 motives or goals. Presumes they have a hidden agenda and thus lacks faith in the honesty or authenticity of what they say.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cWho are you really working for?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAre you doing this for the spotlight?\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Hierarchical communication<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Discourages communication among invested community members and instead encourages communication from the \u201ctop\u201d decision-makers (officials, leaders, spokespersons, or experts) down, which subjugates everyday individuals\u2019 preferences or insights.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cLet\u2019s listen to the mayor, who actually knows what she\u2019s talking about.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAre you just going from experience, or do you actually have a degree on this topic?\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Dogmatism<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Features familiar and even predictable talking points as well as entrenched, predetermined positions.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cBefore I answer that, I\u2019d like to make two points.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAs I\u2019ve said before\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid-R\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\"><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">Misinformation<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">Unintentionally propagates inaccurate or false claims that lack sufficient or valid evidence and\/or identifiable and credible sources.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid-C\" style=\"border: solid windowtext 0.5pt;\">\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cEverybody knows that\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-td\">\u201cAn insider told me\u2026\u201d<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p class=\"import-sbh\"><strong>Box 2.2 Unproductive Discourse in Practice<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_2715\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2715\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-2715\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c.jpg\" alt=\"Drag queen reading a book to children\" width=\"500\" height=\"334\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c.jpg 799w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/54609585739_54b9152964_c-350x233.jpg 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-2715\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/multnomahcountylibrary\/54609585739\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Multnomah County Library via Flickr, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/2.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC-ND<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>An example of problematic public dialogue was found in debates and legislation over drag shows. Although drag and drag performances have a long history, concerns over children\u2019s exposure to them became prominently voiced in the US after 2017. A nonprofit organization called <a class=\"rId56\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/VF2R-PKVA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Drag Story Hour<\/a> began organizing events where drag queens read books to children. While the goal was to promote literacy, inclusivity, and diversity, some people feared possible negative effects.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Instead of engaging in productive discussions about the reading hours, however, the disagreement escalated into unsubstantiated accusations and threats. Vocal opponents featured <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">misinformation, distrust, combativeness, and certainty<\/strong><\/span> in their critiques.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId57\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">According to a <\/span><em class=\"import-url-i\">Forbes<\/em><span class=\"import-url\"> article<\/span><\/a><\/span>, conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, for instance, falsely accused drag queens of \u201chaving their way\u201d with kids during story hours.<\/li>\n<li>Fox News personality Tucker Carlson told his audience that story hours are intended to \u201cindoctrinate and sexualize children.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Baseless claims of drag queens \u201cgrooming\u201d children spread on social media outlets like TikTok. Several states introduced, and some passed, legislation banning or criminalizing drag shows where children might be present, with some labeling the shows as \u201cobscene\u201d content.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ricky Cornish, host, Pride Today, \u201cJinx Monsoon &amp; BenDeLaCreme Defend Drag Queens Against Republicans,\u201d posted October 17, 2023, by Advocate Channel, YouTube, http:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-9\" href=\"#footnote-452-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_60\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-60\" style=\"width: 281px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-60\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25.png\" alt=\"Drag queen BenDeLaCreme talking into a microphone\" width=\"281\" height=\"500\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25.png 418w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25-169x300.png 169w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25-65x116.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25-225x400.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image25-350x623.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-60\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:BenDeLaCreme_All_Stars_1.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">BenDeLaCreme All Stars<\/a> by hinnk via Wikimedia Commons, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-sb\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">In response, drag queens and supporters utilized <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">dichotomous thinking, division, misinformation<\/strong><\/span>, and <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">combativeness<\/strong><\/span> in their self-defense.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>In late 2024, popular drag queen performer Jinx Monsoon, for example, stated that conservatives are \u201cliterally perpetuating lies.\u201d She added, \u201cTheir whole agenda right now, it\u2019s just all such blatant hypocrisy. Everything they accuse us of, there\u2019s no data that supports it, and then they get caught doing the thing that they say queer people are doing.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>In the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId59\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">same video<\/span><\/a><\/span>, drag performer BenDeLaCreme argued, \u201cDrag is not to be feared. Drag is about love, until you cross us. Then you better fear us, because we are strong. So back down or watch out, is how I feel about it.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jay Valle, \u201cMeet the \u2018RuPublicans\u2019: GOP Lawmakers Are Reimagined as AI-Generated Drag Queens,\u201d NBC News, April 12, 2023, https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/nbc-out\/out-pop-culture\/meet-rupublicans-gop-lawmakers-are-reimagined-ai-generated-drag-queens-rcna79136.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-10\" href=\"#footnote-452-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>In March 2023, two drag supporters poked fun at conservative leaders through a comedic but combative Instagram account called \u201c<span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/rupublicans\/?hl=en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">RuPublicans<\/span><\/a><\/span>\u201d that promoted misinformation by featuring AI-created images of GOP leaders in drag.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gino Spocchia, \u201cConservatives Furious as Armed Men Turn Up to Protect Drag Performers at Texas Brunch Event,\u201d Independent, August 30, 2024, https:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/americas\/dallas-drag-brunch-texas-protest-b2155624.html, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-11\" href=\"#footnote-452-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<li>Defense of drag became more intimidating at a 2022 drag brunch in Texas, where supporters guarded the venue against protesters by <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId60\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">dressing largely in black and holding AR<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">&#8211;<\/span><span class=\"import-url\">15 style weapons<\/span><\/a><\/span>.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"We derived these qualities in part by considering the inverse or opposite of the qualities of \u201ccivil talk\u201d proposed by Benjamin Barber in A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998). We return to Barber\u2019s qualities of civil talk in the next chapter.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-12\" href=\"#footnote-452-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-sb\" style=\"margin-left: 36pt; margin-right: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;\">Rather than productively discuss the potential benefits of, and concerns about, Drag Story Hour, several communicators used an array of unproductive discourse qualities. Consequently, they reduced the issue to two incompatible sides, depicted each other as opponents to be defeated, and provided little education about the issues of literacy, diversity, safety, and modeling.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Impacts of Unproductive Discourse<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Unproductive discourse offers some benefits. It often captures our attention and entertains us. Catchy one-liners that require little knowledge can be exciting and fun to watch. Such rhetoric tends to evoke strong emotions from listeners, stirring people to care about issues they might otherwise ignore. It can also bring a sense of clarity to an issue by contrasting two sides.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\"><img class=\"alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image26.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"135.866666666667px\" height=\"135.866666666667px\" \/>However, the harmful outcomes produced by unproductive discourse overwhelm any advantages. Unproductive discourse typically lives up to its name in that it is, well, unproductive. It produces little new or reliable information, nor real understanding, as to why the participants or sides fundamentally disagree. Instead, it can <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">mis<\/em><\/span>educate us, since it overly simplifies complex issues and participants, overlooks additional perspectives, and spreads false information.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Finally, unproductive discourse discourages us from becoming civically engaged because it emphasizes our divisions and turns us into spectators rather than participants. We are reduced to sitting on the sidelines and cheering or booing the participants. It\u2019s not surprising that many of us opt out of the spectacle altogether, developing cynical attitudes about politics and civic affairs.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">So what needs to change? The next section identifies recurrent obstacles to productive discourse that need to be addressed.<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"import-ah\">Obstacles to Productive Communication<\/h1>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">There was never a golden era of respectful public discourse to which we hope to return. But there are at least five aspects of the situation today that exacerbate the problems: social media, the news media, the strategic use of incivility and disinformation, the marketing of ideas, and our own reluctant participation in democratic processes.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Social Media<\/em><\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_62\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-62\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-62\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27.png\" alt=\"Close-up of a smartphone screen displaying a grid of social media app icons, including Vine, LinkedIn, Instagram, Google+, Pinterest, Vimeo, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Tumblr, WhatsApp, and Skype, against a dark background with small blue lights.\" width=\"500\" height=\"363\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27.png 577w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27-300x218.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27-65x47.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27-225x163.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/77\/2025\/05\/image27-350x254.png 350w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-62\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/media-social-media-apps-998990\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Image<\/a> by Pixelkult via Pixabay,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Pixabay license<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Have you ever scrolled through social media and read a post that made you angry? Did you reach out to the person who posted it to thoughtfully discuss the topic? Or did you leave an angry comment or emoji, or even unfriend the person, and then move on to the next post? If you chose the latter, you\u2019re not fully to blame.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Social media platforms encourage users to post things that will garner attention and emotional reactions. For public issues, that often means provocative or controversial claims that stir viewers\u2019 emotions but rarely expand their understanding. Pair that posting incentive with communication restrictions (such as the number of characters allowed or typical post lengths), and you can see why social media are not designed to facilitate thoughtful discussions. Instead, they encourage, at worst, angry invective or, at best, an entertaining escape or mindless scrolling.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>Artist and writer Jenny Odell claims, \u201cThe platforms that we use to communicate with each other do not encourage listening. Instead they reward shouting and oversimple reaction: of having a \u2018take\u2019 after having read a single headline.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jenny Odell, How to Do Nothing: Resisting the Attention Economy (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2019), 23.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-13\" href=\"#footnote-452-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Even people who refrain from making or commenting on posts are affected by the social media they consume. Algorithms that influence which posts we see tend to result in streams that largely reflect and reinforce our beliefs<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brendan Nyhan et al., \u201cLike-Minded Sources on Facebook Are Prevalent but Not Polarizing,\u201d Nature 620 (2023): 137\u2013144, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-023-06297-w.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-14\" href=\"#footnote-452-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> and even steer us toward posts that feature anger and animosity.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Smitha Mill et al., \u201cEngagement, User Satisfaction, and the Amplification of Divisive Content on Social Media,\u201d arXiv, December 22, 2023, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2305.16941.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-15\" href=\"#footnote-452-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> Together, the types of posts we are exposed to and the content they highlight tend to sow oversimplification and emotional reactions and discourage curiosity, empathy, or listening.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>News Media<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Similar to social media, some news media frame, cover, and discuss issues in ways that emphasize conflict and talking points rather than depth and nuance. Cable news programs (e.g., FOX, CNN), in particular, frequently feature verbal fighting between people with differing views. Such news shows attract viewers, but they often make issues appear too immense or too unattractive for viewers to meaningfully engage.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>News media shows on cable television tend to validate and valorize guests who stoke controversy and disagreement.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Incivility and Disinformation as Strategies<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Two additional related, and more disheartening, obstacles are when public actors purposefully use ethically suspect tactics to impede meaningful discussions. One such tactic is what professor of public policy Susan Herbst calls \u201cincivility as strategy.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Susan Herbst, \u201cChange Through Debate,\u201d Inside HigherEd, October 4, 2009, archived at https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250829140151\/https:\/\/www.insidehighered.com\/views\/2009\/10\/05\/change-through-debate.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-16\" href=\"#footnote-452-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> Most of us were probably taught growing up to avoid <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">incivility<\/strong><\/span>, or offensive and rude behavior. Some public figures, however, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">purposefully<\/em><\/span> choose incivility to gain attention and to silence detractors. Comments from radio and television personalities come to mind as a broad example, or attending a community forum and yelling to prevent a speaker from being heard.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">The other tactic is the spread of disinformation. Misinformation is the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">un<\/em><\/span>intentional spread of inaccurate or false claims that lack sufficient or valid evidence and\/or identifiable and credible sources. It is listed as a quality of unproductive discourse because it hurts deliberation when speakers fail to double-check the validity of their information before passing it on. Even more harmful, however, is <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">disinformation<\/strong><\/span>, which refers to the <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><em class=\"import-i\">deliberate<\/em><\/span> attempt to spread wrong information to mislead listeners. Like incivility, some public actors use disinformation strategically to attract support for their ideas or followers for their campaigns.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p><strong>Box 2.3 Misinformation and Disinformation in COVID-19 Rhetoric<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>We can find examples of misinformation and disinformation in some of the public discourse around the COVID-19 pandemic. Initially, President Donald Trump <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">downplayed<\/strong><\/span> the virus\u2019s threat and even promoted drinking disinfectant to combat it despite <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">no supporting evidence<\/strong><\/span>. He and others in the White House also <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId63\" href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">suggested<\/span><\/a><\/span>, <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">without evidence<\/strong><\/span>, that the virus was released by a lab in Wuhan, China.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Benjamin Bell and Fergal Gallagher, \u201cWho Is Spreading COVID-19 Misinformation and Why,\u201d ABC News, May 26, 2020, https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/spreading-covid-19-misinformation\/story?id=70615995, archived at https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-17\" href=\"#footnote-452-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a> In the summer of 2020, the US military capitalized on this false belief through a <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><a class=\"rId64\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"import-url\">disinformation social media campaign<\/span><\/a><\/span> that targeted the Philippines. To weaken China\u2019s influence there, the military created <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">false accounts<\/strong><\/span> that mimicked Filipinos and propagated <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">lies<\/strong><\/span> about the virus and the vaccine under a slogan (in the language of Tagalog) that declared \u201cChina is the virus.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Chris Bing and Joel Schectman, \u201cPentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China During Pandemic,\u201d Reuters, June 14, 2024, https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-452-18\" href=\"#footnote-452-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">When politicians and powerful actors purposefully impede discussion and decision-making, we need different approaches to public discourse.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Marketing Ideas Rather Than Working Toward Compromise<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">The political arena has, in many ways, become more like corporate <span style=\"border: none windowtext 0pt; padding: 0;\"><strong class=\"import-b\">marketing<\/strong><\/span>, or the deliberate promoting and selling of products or services to consumers. Political strategists package politicians (especially candidates) and their ideas for an American consumer market. We watch thirty-second television commercials that advertise their family lives and values (with which almost no one disagrees), look at their official websites (which are nearly always clad in patriotic colors), and read memorable posts designed for social media. Civic engagement becomes reduced to simply choosing which candidate to \u201cbuy\u201d with your vote\u2014and later to choose which prepackaged policy to support. In the process, the public welfare becomes fragmented into demographic and interest groups, and individuals are reduced to passive consumers.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-bh\"><em>Reluctant Participation in Democratic Processes<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-paft\">Finally, we have ourselves to blame. How often do you research current issues? Contact your governmental representatives? Hold lively and respectful discussions with friends and family about controversial topics?<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">As members of a democracy, we too often do the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Sit back and watch as decisions are made for us.<\/li>\n<li>Believe we are too busy to keep up with the issues or get involved.<\/li>\n<li>Defer to experts and authorities, wrongly assuming their powerful positions or knowledge will somehow enable them to promote the public welfare better than the public itself.<\/li>\n<li>Copy some of the more destructive discourse practices we see so frequently. We think that participating in a democracy means adopting a boorish persona and using the qualities of unproductive discourse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-p0\" style=\"text-indent: 36pt;\">Fortunately, there are ways to speak much more productively to bring about the change we wish to see in our institutions and communities. To improve our public discourse, many scholars and public thinkers have offered solutions to increase the quality of our public exchanges, and we outline these in the next chapter.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-paft\">This chapter outlined the contemporary state of our public discourse. It explored the qualities of unproductive discourse, and it encouraged you to also think about a rhetoric\u2019s broader impacts on the public sphere when evaluating communication. In this chapter, you learned the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Public discourse today is largely problematic. It frequently features qualities we associate with unproductive discourse, partly due to the obstacles that prevent speakers from engaging in more productive forms of communication.<\/li>\n<li>Unproductive public discourse is characterized by the following features: division, dichotomous thinking, combativeness, certainty, lack of listening, winning, distrust, hierarchical communication, dogmatism, and misinformation.<\/li>\n<li>Obstacles to productive discourse abound. They include social media, the news media, the strategies of incivility and disinformation, the treatment of the political arena like a marketing campaign, and the inertia or disillusionment of many everyday people who choose not to become involved and change our public conversations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>certainty<br \/>\ncombativeness<br \/>\ndichotomous thinking<br \/>\ndisinformation<br \/>\ndistrust<br \/>\ndivision<br \/>\ndogmatism<br \/>\nhierarchical communication<br \/>\nincivility<br \/>\nlack of listening<br \/>\nmarketing<br \/>\nmisinformation<br \/>\npublic<br \/>\npublic discourse<br \/>\npublic sphere<br \/>\nunproductive discourse<br \/>\nwinning<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Review Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>What is the public sphere, and how is it related to public discourse?<\/li>\n<li>What are the qualities of unproductive discourse?<\/li>\n<li>What are some obstacles to productive discourse?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Discussion Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>Who are examples of public figures who practice unproductive discourse?<\/li>\n<li>Do you agree that in our contemporary culture we mostly hear and use unproductive discourse? Why do you think this is?<\/li>\n<li>Find an example of unproductive discourse. Which qualities do the participants exhibit? How so?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-452-1\">Pew Research Center, \u201cAmericans\u2019 Feelings About Politics, Polarization and the Tone of Political Discourse,\u201d<em>\u00a0Americans\u2019 Dismal Views of the Nation\u2019s Politics<\/em>, September 19, 2023, https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/politics\/2023\/09\/19\/americans-feelings-about-politics-polarization-and-the-tone-of-political-discourse\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/ZBB2-M22D<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-2\">Stephen Groves, \u201cTears, Politics, and Money: School Boards Become Battle Zones,\u201d <em>Associated Press<\/em>, July 10, 2021, <a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/health-education-coronavirus-pandemic-school-boards-e41350b7d9e3662d279c2dad287f7009<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-3\">Aja Romano, \u201cWhat We Still Haven\u2019t Learned from Gamergate,\u201d <em>Vox<\/em>, January 7, 2021, https:\/\/www.vox.com\/culture\/2020\/1\/20\/20808875\/gamergate-lessons-cultural-impact-changes-harassment-laws, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/4DJS-56WY<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-4\">J\u00fcrgen Habermas, <em>The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society <\/em>(Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996). <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-5\">John Dewey, <em>The Public and Its Problems<\/em> (Project Gutenberg, 2023), 208, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/71000\/71000-h\/71000-h.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/71000\/71000-h\/71000-h.htm<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-6\">Benjamin R. Barber, <em>A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em> (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 115. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-7\">Maxime Lepoutre, <em>Democratic Speech in Divided Times<\/em> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 2. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-8\">Conor Murray, \u201cHow Drag Queens Became a Right-Wing Target\u2014from Alex Jones to Tucker Carlson\u2014with These States Trying to Ban Story Hours and Shows,\u201d <em>Forbes<\/em>, February 3, 2023, https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/conormurray\/2023\/02\/03\/how-drag-queens-became-a-right-wing-target-from-alex-jones-to-tucker-carlsonwith-these-states-trying-to-ban-story-hours-and-shows\/, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/5AZL-HHC2?type=standard<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-9\">Ricky Cornish, host, <em>Pride Today,<\/em> \u201cJinx Monsoon &amp; BenDeLaCreme Defend Drag Queens Against Republicans,\u201d posted October 17, 2023, by Advocate Channel, YouTube, <a href=\"http:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=TgcoBvbAidw<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-10\">Jay Valle, \u201cMeet the \u2018RuPublicans\u2019: GOP Lawmakers Are Reimagined as AI-Generated Drag Queens,\u201d <em>NBC News<\/em>, April 12, 2023, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/nbc-out\/out-pop-culture\/meet-rupublicans-gop-lawmakers-are-reimagined-ai-generated-drag-queens-rcna79136\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/nbc-out\/out-pop-culture\/meet-rupublicans-gop-lawmakers-are-reimagined-ai-generated-drag-queens-rcna79136<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-11\">Gino Spocchia, \u201cConservatives Furious as Armed Men Turn Up to Protect Drag Performers at Texas Brunch Event,\u201d <em>Independent<\/em>, August 30, 2024, https:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/americas\/dallas-drag-brunch-texas-protest-b2155624.html, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/J3GN-JZPN<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-12\">We derived these qualities in part by considering the inverse or opposite of the qualities of \u201ccivil talk\u201d proposed by Benjamin Barber in <em>A Place for Us: How to Make Society Civil and Democracy Strong<\/em> (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998). We return to Barber\u2019s qualities of civil talk in the next chapter. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-13\">Jenny Odell, <em>How to Do Nothing: Resisting the Attention Economy<\/em> (Brooklyn: Melville House, 2019), 23. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-14\">Brendan Nyhan et al., \u201cLike-Minded Sources on Facebook Are Prevalent but Not Polarizing,\u201d <em>Nature<\/em> 620 (2023): 137\u2013144, <a href=\"http:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-023-06297-w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41586-023-06297-w<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-15\">Smitha Mill et al., \u201cEngagement, User Satisfaction, and the Amplification of Divisive Content on Social Media,\u201d <em>arXiv<\/em>, December 22, 2023, <a href=\"http:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2305.16941\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2305.16941<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-16\">Susan Herbst, \u201cChange Through Debate,\u201d <em>Inside HigherEd,<\/em> October 4, 2009, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250829140151\/https:\/\/www.insidehighered.com\/views\/2009\/10\/05\/change-through-debate\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20250829140151\/https:\/\/www.insidehighered.com\/views\/2009\/10\/05\/change-through-debate<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-17\">Benjamin Bell and Fergal Gallagher, \u201cWho Is Spreading COVID-19 Misinformation and Why,\u201d <em>ABC News<\/em>, May 26, 2020, https:\/\/abcnews.go.com\/US\/spreading-covid-19-misinformation\/story?id=70615995, archived at <a href=\"https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/perma.cc\/U2LT-AFQ5<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-452-18\">Chris Bing and Joel Schectman, \u201cPentagon Ran Secret Anti-Vax Campaign to Undermine China During Pandemic,\u201d <em>Reuters<\/em>, June 14, 2024, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/investigates\/special-report\/usa-covid-propaganda\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-452-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":3,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/452"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/3"}],"version-history":[{"count":73,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/452\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3270,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/452\/revisions\/3270"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/452\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=452"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=452"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=452"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/publicspeakinganddemocraticparticipation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=452"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}