{"id":62,"date":"2022-07-18T11:16:58","date_gmt":"2022-07-18T11:16:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=62"},"modified":"2022-08-26T15:18:57","modified_gmt":"2022-08-26T15:18:57","slug":"chapter-11-substance-related-disorders","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/chapter\/chapter-11-substance-related-disorders\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 11: Substance Related Disorders","rendered":"Chapter 11: Substance Related Disorders"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Chapter 11: Substance Related Disorders<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2>Overview<\/h2>\r\nSubstance related disorders are many, divided into several classes. One common elements is that all \"drugs taken in excess activate the brain's reward circuitry\" (Black &amp; Grant, 2014). Addiction is a complex situation, changing how the brain functions and the effects of substance abuse will be felt by the individual long after the substance is eliminated from their system (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).\r\n\r\nDrug addiction includes, but is not limited to, the following behaviors and symptoms in order to diagnose (Mayo Clinic, 2022):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Urge to use substance is felt regularly, potentially blocking out other thoughts<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Individual will need more of the substance in order to feel the same way, over time<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Overspending on the drug of choice<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Significantly impairing work or other responsibilities<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Individual may behave outside of their norm, like stealing<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Experiencing withdrawal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Failing in attempts to abstain<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Physical appearance may decline<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Alcohol<\/h2>\r\n[h5p id=\"38\"]\r\n<h2>Caffeine<\/h2>\r\nCaffeine is a socially acceptable stimulant that is widely used to increase alertness and performance (Agoston et al., 2022; Munis, et al., 2017). It is a plant-derived, bitter substance that is found in seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves in plants indigenous to Africa, East Asia, and South America (\u201cCaffeine\u201d, 2022) (APA, 2022). Caffeine acts as a defense mechanism for plants, due to its bitter taste, keeping plant-eaters away and outliving the competition. The best known source of caffeine is coffee, which millions of people consume daily (often many times daily!) (\u201cHistory\u201d, 2022). It is the most widely consumed (and sanctioned) psychoactive drug in the world because it is legal and unregulated nearly everywhere in the world (Franke et al. (2021). Caffeine has its own slew of positive and negative affects. Review the graphic below to learn more about the pros and cons of consuming caffeine.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_360\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"625\"]<img class=\" wp-image-360\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png\" alt=\"Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)\" width=\"625\" height=\"352\" \/> Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Criteria to Diagnose:<\/strong> The criteria required to diagnose caffeine use disorder include: high doses of caffeine consumption, five or more behavioral symptoms like restlessness, diuresis, rambling, and heart racing, the symptoms must be severe enough to impact functioning and are not a result of another condition or disorder.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_364\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"448\"]<img class=\" wp-image-364\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-300x197.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Caffeine-2378&quot; by Greg_Rodgers is licensed under CC BY 2.0. \" width=\"448\" height=\"294\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/76641651@N07\/7523488962\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Caffeine-2378<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/76641651@N07\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Greg_Rodgers<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>According to research, those diagnosed with this disorder are middle-aged, females, and white.\u00a0 These individuals often had other substances that they used like tobacco, alcohol, or cannabis (Sweeney et al., 2020).\r\n\r\n<strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>Some treatment includes a daily caffeine diary, counseling, education, and a caffeine reduction plan. There are not many treatments for this disorder, so more research needs to be done in this area (Meredith et al., 2013)\r\n\r\n<strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.liebertpub.com\/doi\/10.1089\/jcr.2013.0016\">Caffeine use disorder: A comprehensive review and research agenda<\/a> (2013)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/6\/1242\/htm\">Caffeine intake and its sex specific association with general anxiety: A cross-sectional analysis among general population adults<\/a> (2022).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/10\/3080\">Effect of caffeine consumption on the risk of neurological and psychiatric disorders: Sex differences in humans<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Hallucinogen<\/h2>\r\nReview each of the nine hot spots below to learn more about hallucinogens.\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"39\"]\r\n\r\n<strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>There is not one prescribed treatment program for this substance abuse, but behavioral treatments can be helpful. More research needs to be done regarding these treatments. Note that not all hallucinogens are considered addictive substances, hence the lack of addiction treatment (NIDA, 2021)\r\n\r\n<strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028\/full\">Psychedelic experiences during the early COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from an international online survey<\/a> (2021).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-08085-4\">Associations between classic psychedelics and opioid use disorder in a national-representative US adult adult<\/a> (2022)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40429-021-00401-8\">Novel treatment approaches for substance abuse disorders: Therapeutic use of psychedelics and the role of psychotherapy<\/a> (2022)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Inhalants<\/h2>\r\n[h5p id=\"40\"]\r\n\r\nInhalants include a wide range of substances and side effects and are inhaled through the nose or mouth. These substances include gasoline, lacquers, spray paints, glues, aerosols, paints, and cleaning fluids. In addition to the high, intoxicating feeling, users may also experience confusion, disorientation, nausea, fatigue, and other negative side effects (Queensland Government, 2018; Verma, 2011). These substances are easy to obtain and conceal, which promotes their use and addiction. This type of substance abuse occurs worldwide, no socioeconomic class or development status left unaffected (Verma, 2011).\r\n\r\n<strong>Criteria to diagnose: <\/strong>Individuals will experience significant impairment of functioning occurring within 12 months (Black &amp; Grant, 2014).\r\n\r\n<strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA, 2021), about 2.4 million people, 12 years and old, report using inhalants. It is the highest among those aged 12-17.\r\n\r\n<strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>Typical treatment methods include CBT, interventions, group counseling, engagement programs, and 12-step programs (Cleveland Clinic, 2019).\r\n<h2>Opioids<\/h2>\r\nOpiates, are either naturally or synthetically derived from opium (APA, 2022). Opioids are the naturally occurring opiates (like morphine) and synthetic versions (like heroin). Users may experience positive effects, when used clinically as pain relievers, anesthesia, cough suppressants, and antidiarrheal drugs. But, as with all drugs we are discussing, opioids\u00a0 are prone to abuse and dependence in the long-term; symptoms include pain relief, fatigue, euphoria, respiratory depression, and reduced function in the gastrointestinal system (APA, 2022; Bahmutsky, et al., 2020).\r\n\r\n<strong>Criteria to Diagnose: <\/strong>The symptoms provided at the top of the chapter must occur within a 12-month time period (Black &amp; Grant, 2014).\r\n\r\n<strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>Over two million Americans suffer from opioid use disorder (NIDA, 2016). There is significant data on racial, ethnic, and age groups that use opioids. Review this information from a 2019 report from the CDC to learn more and review all of their data: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/volumes\/68\/wr\/mm6843a3.htm#T1_down\">Racial\/ethnic and age group differences in opioid and synthetic opioid-involved overdose deaths among adults aged [older than] 18 years in metropolitan areas<\/a> (2019)\r\n\r\n<strong>Treatment, Medication and Therapy:\u00a0<\/strong>There are effective medications available to treat this disorder. Medications are recommended to be combined with counseling, like CBT (NIDA, 2016).\r\n\r\n<strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00812\/full\">Treatment outcomes in patients with opioid use disorder who were first introduced to opioids by prescription: A systematic review and meta-analysis<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.gavinpublishers.com\/article\/view\/case-report-relapsing-opioid-use-disorder-in-the-context-of-covid-19\">Case report: Relapsing opioid use disorder in the context of COVID-19<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Stimulants<\/h2>\r\n<h3>[h5p id=\"41\"]<\/h3>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2>References:<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Agoston, C., Urban, R., Horvath, Z., van den Brink, W. &amp; Demetrovics, Z. (2022). Self-medication of ADHD symptoms: Does caffeine have a role? <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 13(8). <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-3-stimulants\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Alamia, A., Timmermann, C., Nutt, D., VanRullen, R.,\u00a0 Carhart-Harris, R. (2020) DMT alters cortical travelling waves. <em>eLife<\/em> 9:e59784 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/59784\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.59784<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">AlAteeq, D., Alotaibi, R., Saqer, R., Alharbi, N., Alotaibi, M., Musllet, R., &amp; Alraqibah, R. (2021). Caffeine consumption, intoxication, and stress among female university students: a cross-sectional study. <em>Middle East Current Psychiatry, 28<\/em>(30). <a href=\"https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5\">https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychiatric Association (2022). <em>Addiction and substance use disorders. <\/em>Retrieved on August 26, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.psychiatry.org\/Patients-Families\/Addiction-Substance-Use-Disorders\">https:\/\/www.psychiatry.org\/Patients-Families\/Addiction-Substance-Use-Disorders<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Amphetamines. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Alcohol use disorder.<\/em> APA Dictionary. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/alcohol-use-disorder\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/alcohol-use-disorder<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Caffeine. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cannabis. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cocaine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Hallucinogen. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Associations (2022). <em>LSD.<\/em> APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Peyote. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Arluk, S., Matar, M.A., Carmi, L. et al.<i>(2022)<\/i> MDMA treatment paired with a trauma-cue promotes adaptive stress responses in a translational model of PTSD in rats. <i>Transl Psychiatry<\/i> 12, 181 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-022-01952-8#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-022-01952-8<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Bahji, A. (2019, December 2). <em>Is marijuana bad for your brain? <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Bearman, A. &amp; Schwan, A. (2022). <em>Psychology of Addiction. <\/em>Pressbooks. <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-1\/\">https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-1\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Biondich, A. &amp; Joslin, J. (2016). Coca: The history and medical significance of an ancient Andean tradition. <em>Emergency Medicine International.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Black, D. W., &amp; Grant, J. E. (2014). <i>DSM-5\u00ae Guidebook\u202f: The Essential Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition: Vol. Fifth edition<\/i>. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Australian Government (2020). <em>Standard drinks guide. <\/em>About Alcohol. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/health-topics\/alcohol\/about-alcohol\/standard-drinks-guide\">https:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/health-topics\/alcohol\/about-alcohol\/standard-drinks-guide<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Bodnar, V., Nagy, K, Cziboly, A., &amp; Bardos, G. (2021). Alcohol and placebo: The role of expectations and social influence. <em>International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19,<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11469-020-00321-0\">https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11469-020-00321-0<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">\u201cCaffeine\u201d (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Carboni E, Carta AR, Carboni E &amp; Novelli A (2021) .Repurposing Ketamine in Depression and Related Disorders: Can This Enigmatic Drug Achieve Success? <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience,<\/i> 15:657714. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Casarett, D. (2017, May 17). <em>A doctor\u2019s case for medical marijuana <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Cleveland Clinic (2019, October 11). <em>Inhalant abuse. <\/em>Retrieved on August 26, 2022 <a href=\"https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diseases\/15742-inhalant-abuse\">https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diseases\/15742-inhalant-abuse<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Cort, B. (2018, September 25). <em>What commercialization is doing to cannabis <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Cusack, P. (2020, May 14). Addiction of Caffeine and Sugar. <em>Open Access Journal of Addiction and Psychology, 3<\/em>(5). <a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575\">DOI: 10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">dakota of earth (2021, January 2). <em>Drinking psychedelic peyote juice in Mexico <\/em>[Video\u2019]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Dandelion Medical Animation (2021, December 25). <em>Digestion of alcohol is not like other food <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Oslu11jnmM\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Oslu11jnmM<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">dePaula, J. &amp; Farah, A. (2019). Caffeine consumption through coffee: Content in the beverage, metabolism, health benefits and risks. <em>Beverages, 5<\/em>(2), 37. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5710\/5\/2\/37\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/beverages5020037<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Ermakova, A., Whiting, C., Trout, K., Clubbe, C., Fowler, N., Terry, M. (2020). Ecology and conservation of peyote in Texas, USA: Comparative survey of <em>Lophophora williamsii <\/em>populations in Tamaulipan Thornscrub and Chihuahuan Desert. <em>Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas. <\/em><span class=\"highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515v1.full\"><span class=\"label\">doi:<\/span> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515<\/a> <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Evens R, Reiche S, Marek RM, Moon DU, Gro\u00df RE, Romanello A, Jalilzadeh Masah D, Scicchitano B\u00f6ckheler M, Gutwinski S, Montag C, Mick I and Maji\u0107 T (2021) Psychedelic Experiences During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings From an International Online Survey. <i>Front. Psychiatry<\/i> 12:732028. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Ferruci, M., Limanaqi, F., Ryskalin, L., Biagioni, F., Busceti, C., &amp; Forni, F. (2019). The effects of amphetamine and methamphetamine on the release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine from the brainstem reticular formation. <em>Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 13<\/em>(48). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Foundation for a Drug-Free World (2022). <em>Alcohol: A short history. <\/em>A Foundation for a Drug-Free World. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.drugfreeworld.org\/drugfacts\/alcohol\/a-short-history.html\">https:\/\/www.drugfreeworld.org\/drugfacts\/alcohol\/a-short-history.html<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Franke, A., Koller, G., Krause, D., Proebtstl, L., Kamp, F., Pogarell, O., Jebrini, T., Manz, K., Chrobok, A., &amp;\u00a0 Soyka, M. (2021) Just \u201clife coffee\u201d or neuroenhancement by stimulants. <em>Frontiers in Public Health, 9. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Grace, S., Rossetti, M.G., Allen, N. et al. (2021). Sex differences in the neuroanatomy of alcohol dependence: hippocampus and amygdala subregions in a sample of 966 people from the ENIGMA Addiction Working Group. <i>Translational Psychiatry<\/i> 11<b>, <\/b>156 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-021-01204-1#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-021-01204-1<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Graves, B., Johnson, T., Nishida, R., Dias, R., Savareear, B., Harynuk, J., Kazemimanesh, M., Olfert., J. &amp; Boies, A. (2020). Comprehensive characterization of mainstream marijuana and tobacco smoke. <em>Scientific Reports 10, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Grossman, E., Benjamin-Neelon, S., &amp; Sonnenschein, S. (2020). Alcohol consumption during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey of US adults. <em>International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17<\/em>(24). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/24\/9189\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17249189<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Harker, N., Londani, M., Morojele, N., Williams, P., Parry, C. (2020). 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(2018).\u00a0Peyote veneration in challenging times: Issues of land and access in South Texas. <em>Arcadia, 19, <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas\">https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">\u201cHistory and culture of substituted amphetamines\u201d (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines#cite_note-Edeleanu-2\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines#cite_note-Edeleanu-2<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Inaba, D. 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Reported cases of serotonin syndrome in MDMA users in FAERS database. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:824288. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Marcus, D. &amp; Bruchas, B. (2021) Antidepressants: Where ketamine and dopamine collide <em>eLife<\/em> 10:e70148 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/70148\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.70148<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Matzopoulos R, Morlock R, Morlock A, Lerer B and Lerer L (2022). Psychedelic mushrooms in the USA: Knowledge, patterns of use, and association with health outcomes. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:780696. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"citation-text no-indent hanging-indent\">Meredith, S. E., Juliano, L. M., Hughes, J. 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Braking up the wrong tree: Why and how we may need to revise alcohol addiction therapy. <em>Frontiers in Psychology. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00884\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00884<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Sweeney, M., Weaver, D., Vincent, K. Arria, A. &amp; Griffiths, R. (2020). Prevalence and correlates of caffeine use disorder symptoms among a United States example. <em>Journal of Caffeine and Adenosine Research 10<\/em>(1). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/caff.2019.0020\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1089\/caff.2019.0020<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Tait, R., McKetin, R., Kay, Lambkin, F., Carron-Arthur, B., Bennett, A., Bennett, K., Christensen, H., &amp; Griffiths, K. (2014). 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The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 8<\/em>(80). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Timmermann C, Roseman L, Williams L, Erritzoe D, Martial C, Cassol H, Laureys S, Nutt D and Carhart-Harris R (2018) DMT Models the Near-Death Experience. <i>Frontiers in Psychology.<\/i> 9:1424. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Tran, M., Luong, Q., Minh, G., Dunne, M., &amp; Baker, P. (2021). 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Ketamine treatment for depression: a review. <i>Discover Mental Health<\/i> 2, 9. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3<\/a><\/p>\r\nVertava Health (2022). <em>Cocaine use statistics by age.<\/em> Cocaine Addiction Treatment. <a href=\"https:\/\/vertavahealth.com\/cocaine\/statistics\/\">https:\/\/vertavahealth.com\/cocaine\/statistics\/<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Wang, S., Chen, Y., Chen, S., Lee, C., &amp; Cheng, C. (2020). Alcohol addiction, gut microbota, and alcoholism treatment: A review. <em>International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21<\/em>(17). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/17\/6413\">https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/17\/6413<\/a><\/p>","rendered":"<h2>Chapter 11: Substance Related Disorders<\/h2>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>Overview<\/h2>\n<p>Substance related disorders are many, divided into several classes. One common elements is that all &#8220;drugs taken in excess activate the brain&#8217;s reward circuitry&#8221; (Black &amp; Grant, 2014). Addiction is a complex situation, changing how the brain functions and the effects of substance abuse will be felt by the individual long after the substance is eliminated from their system (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).<\/p>\n<p>Drug addiction includes, but is not limited to, the following behaviors and symptoms in order to diagnose (Mayo Clinic, 2022):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Urge to use substance is felt regularly, potentially blocking out other thoughts<\/li>\n<li>Individual will need more of the substance in order to feel the same way, over time<\/li>\n<li>Overspending on the drug of choice<\/li>\n<li>Significantly impairing work or other responsibilities<\/li>\n<li>Individual may behave outside of their norm, like stealing<\/li>\n<li>Experiencing withdrawal<\/li>\n<li>Failing in attempts to abstain<\/li>\n<li>Physical appearance may decline<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Alcohol<\/h2>\n<div id=\"h5p-38\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-38\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"38\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Alcohol\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Caffeine<\/h2>\n<p>Caffeine is a socially acceptable stimulant that is widely used to increase alertness and performance (Agoston et al., 2022; Munis, et al., 2017). It is a plant-derived, bitter substance that is found in seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves in plants indigenous to Africa, East Asia, and South America (\u201cCaffeine\u201d, 2022) (APA, 2022). Caffeine acts as a defense mechanism for plants, due to its bitter taste, keeping plant-eaters away and outliving the competition. The best known source of caffeine is coffee, which millions of people consume daily (often many times daily!) (\u201cHistory\u201d, 2022). It is the most widely consumed (and sanctioned) psychoactive drug in the world because it is legal and unregulated nearly everywhere in the world (Franke et al. (2021). Caffeine has its own slew of positive and negative affects. Review the graphic below to learn more about the pros and cons of consuming caffeine.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_360\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-360\" style=\"width: 625px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img class=\"wp-image-360\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png\" alt=\"Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)\" width=\"625\" height=\"352\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-1024x576.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-768x432.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-1536x864.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-65x37.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-225x127.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation-350x197.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/sandbox-presentation.png 1920w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-360\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Criteria to Diagnose:<\/strong> The criteria required to diagnose caffeine use disorder include: high doses of caffeine consumption, five or more behavioral symptoms like restlessness, diuresis, rambling, and heart racing, the symptoms must be severe enough to impact functioning and are not a result of another condition or disorder.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_364\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-364\" style=\"width: 448px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-364\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-300x197.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Caffeine-2378&quot; by Greg_Rodgers is licensed under CC BY 2.0.\" width=\"448\" height=\"294\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-768x505.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-225x148.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine-350x230.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychopathology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2022\/07\/caffeine.jpg 1024w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-364\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/76641651@N07\/7523488962\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Caffeine-2378<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/76641651@N07\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Greg_Rodgers<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>According to research, those diagnosed with this disorder are middle-aged, females, and white.\u00a0 These individuals often had other substances that they used like tobacco, alcohol, or cannabis (Sweeney et al., 2020).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>Some treatment includes a daily caffeine diary, counseling, education, and a caffeine reduction plan. There are not many treatments for this disorder, so more research needs to be done in this area (Meredith et al., 2013)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.liebertpub.com\/doi\/10.1089\/jcr.2013.0016\">Caffeine use disorder: A comprehensive review and research agenda<\/a> (2013)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/14\/6\/1242\/htm\">Caffeine intake and its sex specific association with general anxiety: A cross-sectional analysis among general population adults<\/a> (2022).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-6643\/12\/10\/3080\">Effect of caffeine consumption on the risk of neurological and psychiatric disorders: Sex differences in humans<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Hallucinogen<\/h2>\n<p>Review each of the nine hot spots below to learn more about hallucinogens.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-39\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-39\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"39\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Hallucinogens\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>There is not one prescribed treatment program for this substance abuse, but behavioral treatments can be helpful. More research needs to be done regarding these treatments. Note that not all hallucinogens are considered addictive substances, hence the lack of addiction treatment (NIDA, 2021)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028\/full\">Psychedelic experiences during the early COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from an international online survey<\/a> (2021).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-08085-4\">Associations between classic psychedelics and opioid use disorder in a national-representative US adult adult<\/a> (2022)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s40429-021-00401-8\">Novel treatment approaches for substance abuse disorders: Therapeutic use of psychedelics and the role of psychotherapy<\/a> (2022)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Inhalants<\/h2>\n<div id=\"h5p-40\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-40\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"40\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"inhalants\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Inhalants include a wide range of substances and side effects and are inhaled through the nose or mouth. These substances include gasoline, lacquers, spray paints, glues, aerosols, paints, and cleaning fluids. In addition to the high, intoxicating feeling, users may also experience confusion, disorientation, nausea, fatigue, and other negative side effects (Queensland Government, 2018; Verma, 2011). These substances are easy to obtain and conceal, which promotes their use and addiction. This type of substance abuse occurs worldwide, no socioeconomic class or development status left unaffected (Verma, 2011).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Criteria to diagnose: <\/strong>Individuals will experience significant impairment of functioning occurring within 12 months (Black &amp; Grant, 2014).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (SAMHSA, 2021), about 2.4 million people, 12 years and old, report using inhalants. It is the highest among those aged 12-17.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Treatment, Medication, and Therapy: <\/strong>Typical treatment methods include CBT, interventions, group counseling, engagement programs, and 12-step programs (Cleveland Clinic, 2019).<\/p>\n<h2>Opioids<\/h2>\n<p>Opiates, are either naturally or synthetically derived from opium (APA, 2022). Opioids are the naturally occurring opiates (like morphine) and synthetic versions (like heroin). Users may experience positive effects, when used clinically as pain relievers, anesthesia, cough suppressants, and antidiarrheal drugs. But, as with all drugs we are discussing, opioids\u00a0 are prone to abuse and dependence in the long-term; symptoms include pain relief, fatigue, euphoria, respiratory depression, and reduced function in the gastrointestinal system (APA, 2022; Bahmutsky, et al., 2020).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Criteria to Diagnose: <\/strong>The symptoms provided at the top of the chapter must occur within a 12-month time period (Black &amp; Grant, 2014).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Typical Demographics: <\/strong>Over two million Americans suffer from opioid use disorder (NIDA, 2016). There is significant data on racial, ethnic, and age groups that use opioids. Review this information from a 2019 report from the CDC to learn more and review all of their data: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/volumes\/68\/wr\/mm6843a3.htm#T1_down\">Racial\/ethnic and age group differences in opioid and synthetic opioid-involved overdose deaths among adults aged [older than] 18 years in metropolitan areas<\/a> (2019)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Treatment, Medication and Therapy:\u00a0<\/strong>There are effective medications available to treat this disorder. Medications are recommended to be combined with counseling, like CBT (NIDA, 2016).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Case Studies to Review:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00812\/full\">Treatment outcomes in patients with opioid use disorder who were first introduced to opioids by prescription: A systematic review and meta-analysis<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.gavinpublishers.com\/article\/view\/case-report-relapsing-opioid-use-disorder-in-the-context-of-covid-19\">Case report: Relapsing opioid use disorder in the context of COVID-19<\/a> (2020)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Stimulants<\/h2>\n<h3>\n<div id=\"h5p-41\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-41\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"41\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"stimulants\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/h3>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>References:<\/h2>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Agoston, C., Urban, R., Horvath, Z., van den Brink, W. &amp; Demetrovics, Z. (2022). Self-medication of ADHD symptoms: Does caffeine have a role? <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 13(8). <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-3-stimulants\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Alamia, A., Timmermann, C., Nutt, D., VanRullen, R.,\u00a0 Carhart-Harris, R. (2020) DMT alters cortical travelling waves. <em>eLife<\/em> 9:e59784 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/59784\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.59784<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">AlAteeq, D., Alotaibi, R., Saqer, R., Alharbi, N., Alotaibi, M., Musllet, R., &amp; Alraqibah, R. (2021). Caffeine consumption, intoxication, and stress among female university students: a cross-sectional study. <em>Middle East Current Psychiatry, 28<\/em>(30). <a href=\"https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5\">https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychiatric Association (2022). <em>Addiction and substance use disorders. <\/em>Retrieved on August 26, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.psychiatry.org\/Patients-Families\/Addiction-Substance-Use-Disorders\">https:\/\/www.psychiatry.org\/Patients-Families\/Addiction-Substance-Use-Disorders<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Amphetamines. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Alcohol use disorder.<\/em> APA Dictionary. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/alcohol-use-disorder\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/alcohol-use-disorder<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Caffeine. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cannabis. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cocaine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Hallucinogen. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Associations (2022). <em>LSD.<\/em> APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Peyote. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Arluk, S., Matar, M.A., Carmi, L. et al.<i>(2022)<\/i> MDMA treatment paired with a trauma-cue promotes adaptive stress responses in a translational model of PTSD in rats. <i>Transl Psychiatry<\/i> 12, 181 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-022-01952-8#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-022-01952-8<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Bahji, A. (2019, December 2). <em>Is marijuana bad for your brain? <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Bearman, A. &amp; Schwan, A. (2022). <em>Psychology of Addiction. <\/em>Pressbooks. <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-1\/\">https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-1\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Biondich, A. &amp; Joslin, J. (2016). Coca: The history and medical significance of an ancient Andean tradition. <em>Emergency Medicine International.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Black, D. W., &amp; Grant, J. E. (2014). <i>DSM-5\u00ae Guidebook\u202f: The Essential Companion to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition: Vol. Fifth edition<\/i>. American Psychiatric Association Publishing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Australian Government (2020). <em>Standard drinks guide. <\/em>About Alcohol. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/health-topics\/alcohol\/about-alcohol\/standard-drinks-guide\">https:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/health-topics\/alcohol\/about-alcohol\/standard-drinks-guide<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Bodnar, V., Nagy, K, Cziboly, A., &amp; Bardos, G. (2021). Alcohol and placebo: The role of expectations and social influence. <em>International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19,<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11469-020-00321-0\">https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s11469-020-00321-0<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">\u201cCaffeine\u201d (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Carboni E, Carta AR, Carboni E &amp; Novelli A (2021) .Repurposing Ketamine in Depression and Related Disorders: Can This Enigmatic Drug Achieve Success? <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience,<\/i> 15:657714. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Casarett, D. (2017, May 17). <em>A doctor\u2019s case for medical marijuana <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Cleveland Clinic (2019, October 11). <em>Inhalant abuse. <\/em>Retrieved on August 26, 2022 <a href=\"https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diseases\/15742-inhalant-abuse\">https:\/\/my.clevelandclinic.org\/health\/diseases\/15742-inhalant-abuse<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent no-indent\">Cort, B. (2018, September 25). <em>What commercialization is doing to cannabis <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Cusack, P. (2020, May 14). Addiction of Caffeine and Sugar. <em>Open Access Journal of Addiction and Psychology, 3<\/em>(5). <a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575\">DOI: 10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">dakota of earth (2021, January 2). <em>Drinking psychedelic peyote juice in Mexico <\/em>[Video\u2019]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Dandelion Medical Animation (2021, December 25). <em>Digestion of alcohol is not like other food <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Oslu11jnmM\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Oslu11jnmM<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">dePaula, J. &amp; Farah, A. (2019). Caffeine consumption through coffee: Content in the beverage, metabolism, health benefits and risks. <em>Beverages, 5<\/em>(2), 37. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5710\/5\/2\/37\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/beverages5020037<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Ermakova, A., Whiting, C., Trout, K., Clubbe, C., Fowler, N., Terry, M. (2020). Ecology and conservation of peyote in Texas, USA: Comparative survey of <em>Lophophora williamsii <\/em>populations in Tamaulipan Thornscrub and Chihuahuan Desert. <em>Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas. <\/em><span class=\"highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515v1.full\"><span class=\"label\">doi:<\/span> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515<\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Evens R, Reiche S, Marek RM, Moon DU, Gro\u00df RE, Romanello A, Jalilzadeh Masah D, Scicchitano B\u00f6ckheler M, Gutwinski S, Montag C, Mick I and Maji\u0107 T (2021) Psychedelic Experiences During the Early COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings From an International Online Survey. <i>Front. Psychiatry<\/i> 12:732028. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.732028<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Ferruci, M., Limanaqi, F., Ryskalin, L., Biagioni, F., Busceti, C., &amp; Forni, F. (2019). The effects of amphetamine and methamphetamine on the release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine from the brainstem reticular formation. <em>Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 13<\/em>(48). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Foundation for a Drug-Free World (2022). <em>Alcohol: A short history. <\/em>A Foundation for a Drug-Free World. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.drugfreeworld.org\/drugfacts\/alcohol\/a-short-history.html\">https:\/\/www.drugfreeworld.org\/drugfacts\/alcohol\/a-short-history.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Franke, A., Koller, G., Krause, D., Proebtstl, L., Kamp, F., Pogarell, O., Jebrini, T., Manz, K., Chrobok, A., &amp;\u00a0 Soyka, M. (2021) Just \u201clife coffee\u201d or neuroenhancement by stimulants. <em>Frontiers in Public Health, 9. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Grace, S., Rossetti, M.G., Allen, N. et al. (2021). Sex differences in the neuroanatomy of alcohol dependence: hippocampus and amygdala subregions in a sample of 966 people from the ENIGMA Addiction Working Group. <i>Translational Psychiatry<\/i> 11<b>, <\/b>156 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-021-01204-1#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-021-01204-1<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"no-indent hanging-indent\">Graves, B., Johnson, T., Nishida, R., Dias, R., Savareear, B., Harynuk, J., Kazemimanesh, M., Olfert., J. &amp; Boies, A. (2020). 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