{"id":32,"date":"2022-06-10T16:34:24","date_gmt":"2022-06-10T16:34:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=32"},"modified":"2022-07-27T14:26:44","modified_gmt":"2022-07-27T14:26:44","slug":"chapter-7-hallucinogens","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-7-hallucinogens\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 7: Hallucinogens","rendered":"Chapter 7: Hallucinogens"},"content":{"raw":"<h1>Chapter 7: Hallucinogens<\/h1>\r\nBy the end of this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Examine the dominant beliefs and attitudes in our society with regard to chemical use. <strong>(LO1)<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define the characteristics of the major classes of drugs. <strong>(LO2)<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify and summarize the addiction process and the characteristics thereof. <strong>(LO3)<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"31\"]\r\n<h2>Overview<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_336\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"194\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-336\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. \" width=\"194\" height=\"300\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6935601963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHallucinogens are a tricky batch of drugs that can act like stimulants or act as depressants. This group of drugs may produce a sensory effect leading to additional alternations in perception, cognition, and mood (APA, 2022). These drugs can also be called psychedelic drugs and include: LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, MDMA, ketamine, PCP, DMT, and marijuana. These drugs are generally sorted into two categories: classic hallucinogens (like LSD) and dissociative drugs (like PCP) (NIDA, 2015). While there is a negative stigma associated with this group of drugs, there is burgeoning research that suggests there are medical and therapeutic uses for these drugs. Generally, there is a slim chance of: toxicity, addiction, dependence, and neurological affects during or after use (Lowe, 2022; Matzopoulos et al., 2022).\r\n<h3>LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_322\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-322 size-medium\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?curid=96449756\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">File:Claviceps purpurea 47424140.jpg<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.inaturalist.org\/users\/740142\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Kasper Malmberg<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 4.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLSD is very strong drug in this category that mimics neurotransmitters exerting its psychoactive effects on the user. It is unique because it interacts with both serotonin and dopamine receptors (Lowe, 2022).\u00a0 LSD has many aliases including but not limited to: acid, sugar cubs, trips, tabs, or windowpanes. Derived from a fungus (show at left), it is nearly undetectable and water soluble.\u00a0 The most common way to take this drug, besides orally, is for LSD-soaked paper to be cut into small, but potent, circles (NIDA, 2015).\r\n\r\nEarly in its history, LSD was used to treat alcoholism and neurosis. But more recent studies have seen improvements in users who have the following diseases or situations: Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, criminal behavior, autism, frigidity, and many others (Lowe, 2022; Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022).\r\n\r\nShort-term sides effects of LSD are (NIDA, 2015):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Increased blood pressure and temperature<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dizziness and fatigue<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Appetite suppression<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Feelings of numbness, weakness, and tremors<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Increase impulsivity and moodiness<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Psilocybin Mushroom<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"229\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-332\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-229x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Psilocybe Mexicana&quot; by Quasimondo is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. \" width=\"229\" height=\"300\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/35468141611@N01\/98445472\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psilocybe Mexicana<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/35468141611@N01\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Quasimondo<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"326\"]psilocybin [\/pb_glossary] mushrooms (shown at right) has play an integral role in cultural traditions throughout Central and South America for centuries (Matzopoulos et al., 2022; Rootman et al., 2022). The effects users experienced were considered magical up to deep religious and spiritual experiences (Lowe, 2022; NIDA, 2015; Arce &amp; Winkelman et al., 2021). Because of its vital cultural role, it is one of the most studied psychedelic drugs. Currently, there are promising therapeutic uses for psilocybin mushrooms, like treating painful conditions, heart conditions, or mood and anxiety disorders, especially in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic (Lowe, 2022; Matzopoulos et al., 2022; Nkadimeng et al., 2020).\u00a0 The mushrooms can be consumed, orally, in a variety of ways ranging from raw to brewed with tea (NIDA, 2015); studies indicate that small doses are effective in treating symptoms without impairing regular functioning of the individual (Rootman et. al, 2022).\r\n\r\nShort-term side effects of psilocybin mushrooms are (NIDA, 2015):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Sense of ease or relaxation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anxiety<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Introspection<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Poisoning due to misidentification of mushrooms<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Peyote<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_363\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"342\"]<img class=\" wp-image-363\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3-191x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Xochipilli, Aztec 'Prince of Flowers' - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. \" width=\"342\" height=\"537\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6789455114\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Xochipilli, Aztec 'Prince of Flowers' - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPeyote is a small cactus with its main ingredient being mescaline. It has been used in Central and North America during cultural and religious experiences. The intoxicating liquid, produced when processing the cactus, that it is usually consumed via tea to tamp down the excessively bitter flavor (NIDA, 2015; APA, 2022; Hinojosa, 2018). The future of peyote is uncertain as it is not being used in a sustainable way and therefore can not regrow as quickly as it is consumed (APA, 2022; Ermakova et al., 2020). Learn more about peyote harvest and some of the practices from this article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas\">Peyote Veneration in Challenging Times: Issues of Land and Access in South Texas<\/a> (2018) and watch the video below called Drinking Psychedelic Peyote Juice in Mexico (2021).\r\n\r\nShort-term side effects of peyote are (NIDA, 2015):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Increased heart rate and temperature<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ataxia<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Significant sweating<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[h5p id=\"32\"]\r\n<h3>MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)<\/h3>\r\nThis drug has an amphetamine-style experience with added hallucinations. It is typically sold as ecstasy. Individuals will experience the high very quickly and for a long time, even up to days (APA, 2022). Users of this drug may feel euphoric arousal with spiritual experiences. Research suggests that there are some long-term side effects like addiction, memory dysfunction, lack of control, and when used in high doses, it can be deadly (APA, 2022; Pantoni et al., 2022). And, other research has provided evidence that it can be beneficial in low-doses for safely treating intense disorders like PTSD (Mitchell et al., 2021; Arluk et al., 2022) and other anxiety-related experiences and disorders (Makunts et al., 2022; Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022)\r\n\r\nSome side effects that can be experienced are (Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022)\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Pain<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cramps<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dissociative symptoms<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sensory hallucinations<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[h5p id=\"33\"]\r\n<h3>Ketamine<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_348\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"240\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-348\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;ketamine&quot; by juliankopald is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0. \" width=\"240\" height=\"240\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/132670395@N06\/20103179465\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">ketamine<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/132670395@N06\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">juliankopald<\/a> is marked with <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain Mark 1.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nKetamine, a cousin to PCP, often results in the user being disoriented and hallucinating. Typically, this drug is ingested in pill or powder form (APA, 2022). At one time, ketamine was used in veterinarian offices (NIDA, 2015), but eventually came to treat a variety of painful conditions and addiction (Carboni, 2021; Marcus &amp; Bruchas, 2021; Pribish, 2020), but more recently, it has been used to treat unique cases of bipolar-depression, where other treatments have proven ineffective (APA, 2022; Rawat et al., 2022; Yavi et al., 2022; Pribish, 2020). Because of its lack of odor and color, it has been used to spike drinks in order to commit sexual assault (NIDA, 2015). Ketamine is poorly understood or lacks the research to support potential benefits (Carboni, 2021; Marcus &amp; Bruchas, 2021).\r\n\r\nSide effects can include (Carboni, 2021):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nightmares or intense dreams<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Delusions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anesthesia (Pribish, 2020)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>PCP<\/h3>\r\nPCP was originally developed for surgical uses, but later it was realized that it produces hallucinogenic responses (APA, 2022) and is now sought out for recreational uses (Ryu et al., 2020). This drug can consumed in a number of ways, though when it is smoked it is usually combined with marijuana or tobacco (NIDA, 2015).\r\n\r\nSymptoms of use, can include (APA, 2022):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Schizophrenia (both positive and negative symptoms)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Agitation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Delirium<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Disorientation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[h5p id=\"34\"]\r\n<h3>DMT and Ayahuasca<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_331\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"486\"]<img class=\" wp-image-331\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-300x228.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Preparing Ayahuasca - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden-Guide 102a&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"486\" height=\"369\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6940782199\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Preparing Ayahuasca - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden-Guide 102a<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDMT is a powerful psychoactive ingredient found in a plant species native to the Amazon. Synthetic versions of this drug are usually a white powder that is smoked. Ayahuasca is made from similar Amazonian plants as well, but is usually consumed in the form of tea in South America (NIDA, 2015; APA, 2022). These drugs are characterized by short periods of hallucinations (Timmermann et al., 2018; Alamia, 2020) and while it is generally safe to use, it cannot be easily broken down in the body and may negatively react with other drugs (Lowe, 2022). Ayahuasca is typically reserved for spiritual and cultural ceremonies but can also act as an aphrodisiac and in the diagnosis of other disorders (Lowe, 2022; APA, 2022). It is a trending component of South American tourism that began in the Amazon, but is spreading to other South American countries as well and beyond into North America and Europe (Lowe, 2022).\r\n\r\nSide effects can include (APA, 2022):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Nausea<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Vomiting<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tinnitus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Euphoria<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Marijuana<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_364\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"287\"]<img class=\" wp-image-364\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Cannabis Sativa - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0. \" width=\"287\" height=\"444\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6789455134\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cannabis Sativa - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAlso known as cannabis, these species of plants make up a very popular recreational drug. In fact, globally is it the most popular controlled substance (Graves et al., 2020; Latif &amp; Garg, 2020) The psychoactive component known as THC, is contained in the flowers of the plant (APA, 2022). This drug is typically smoked and the user feels the high for roughly three hours. Learn more about cannabis, how it effects the brain, medicine, communities, and businesses by watching the playlist below.\r\n\r\nSide effects can include (APA, 2022):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Euphoria<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Lack of memory or focus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Food cravings<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anxiety<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tolerance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Withdrawal<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nResearch also suggests that there could be severe effects on the cardiovascular system by using this drug, check out this study for more information: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/6\/1925\/htm\">The Impact of Marijuana on the Cardiovascular System: A Review of the Most Common Cardiovascular Events Associated with Marijuana Use<\/a> (Latif &amp; Garg, 2020).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"35\"]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2>References<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Alamia, A., Timmermann, C., Nutt, D., VanRullen, R.,\u00a0 Carhart-Harris, R. (2020) DMT alters cortical travelling waves. <em>eLife<\/em> 9:e59784 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/59784\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.59784<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cannabis. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Hallucinogen. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Associations (2022). <em>LSD.<\/em> APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Peyote. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Arluk, S., Matar, M.A., Carmi, L. et al.<i>(2022)<\/i> MDMA treatment paired with a trauma-cue promotes adaptive stress responses in a translational model of PTSD in rats. <i>Transl Psychiatry<\/i> 12, 181 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-022-01952-8#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-022-01952-8<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bahji, A. (2019, December 2). <em>Is marijuana bad for your brain? <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carboni E, Carta AR, Carboni E &amp; Novelli A (2021) .Repurposing Ketamine in Depression and Related Disorders: Can This Enigmatic Drug Achieve Success? <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience,<\/i> 15:657714. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Casarett, D. (2017, May 17). <em>A doctor's case for medical marijuana <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cort, B. (2018, September 25). <em>What commercialization is doing to cannabis <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">dakota of earth (2021, January 2). <em>Drinking psychedelic peyote juice in Mexico <\/em>[Video']. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ermakova, A., Whiting, C., Trout, K., Clubbe, C., Fowler, N., Terry, M. (2020). Ecology and conservation of peyote in Texas, USA: Comparative survey of <em>Lophophora williamsii <\/em>populations in Tamaulipan Thornscrub and Chihuahuan Desert. <em>Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas. <\/em><span class=\"highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515v1.full\"><span class=\"label\">doi:<\/span> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515<\/a> <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Graves, B., Johnson, T., Nishida, R., Dias, R., Savareear, B., Harynuk, J., Kazemimanesh, M., Olfert., J. &amp; Boies, A. (2020). Comprehensive characterization of mainstream marijuana and tobacco smoke. <em>Scientific Reports 10, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hinojosa, S. (2018).\u00a0Peyote veneration in challenging times: Issues of land and access in South Texas. <em>Arcadia, 19, <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas\">https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Latif, Z &amp; Garg, N. (2020)\u00a0The impact of marijuana on the cardiovascular system: A review of the most common cardiovascular events associate with marijuana use. <em>Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(6). <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9061925\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9061925<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Lowe, H., Toyang, N., Steele, B., Grant, J., Ali, A., Gordon, L., &amp; Ngwa, W. (2022). Psychedelics: Alternative and potential therapeutic options for treating mood and anxiety disorders. <em>Molecules, 27(8). <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/8\/2520\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27082520<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Makunts T, Jerome L, Abagyan R., &amp; de Boer A (2022). Reported cases of serotonin syndrome in MDMA users in FAERS database. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:824288. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Marcus, D. &amp; Bruchas, B. (2021) Antidepressants: Where ketamine and dopamine collide <em>eLife<\/em> 10:e70148 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/70148\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.70148<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Matzopoulos R, Morlock R, Morlock A, Lerer B and Lerer L (2022). Psychedelic mushrooms in the USA: Knowledge, patterns of use, and association with health outcomes. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:780696. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">National Institute on Drug Abuse (2015). <em>Hallucinogens and dissociative drugs.<\/em> NIDA. Retrieved July 21, 2022 from<em><a href=\"https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/25\/2017\/06\/Hallucinogens-Dissociative-Drugs-NIDA.pdf\">https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/25\/2017\/06\/Hallucinogens-Dissociative-Drugs-NIDA.pdf<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">New Zealand Drug Administration (2022, February 17). <em>Did you know: MDMA <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=AeK1biRUoSE\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=AeK1biRUoSE<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Oehen P and Gasser P (2022) Using a MDMA- and LSD-group therapy model in clinical practice in Switzerland and highlighting the treatment of trauma-related disorders. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 13:863552. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.863552\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.863552<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pantoni, M.M., Kim, J.L., Van Alstyne, K.R. et al. (2022). MDMA and memory, addiction, and depression: dose-effect analysis. <i>Psychopharmacology<\/i> 239<b>, <\/b>935\u2013949. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00213-022-06086-9#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00213-022-06086-9<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pribish, A., Wood, N., &amp; Kalava, A. (2020). <span class=\"adjust-article-svg-size\">A review of nonanesthetic uses of ketamine.<\/span> <i>Anesthesiology Research and Practice.<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/arp\/2020\/5798285\/\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2020\/5798285<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rawat, R., Tunc-Ozcan, E., McGuire, T.L. et al<i>. (2022).<\/i> Ketamine activates adult-born immature granule neurons to rapidly alleviate depression-like behaviors in mice. <i>Nature Communications,<\/i> <b>13, <\/b>2650. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-022-30386-5#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-022-30386-5<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rodr\u00edguez Arce JM &amp; Winkelman MJ (2021) Psychedelics, Sociality, and Human Evolution. <i>Frontiers in Psychol.<\/i> 12:729425. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.729425\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.729425<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rootman, J.M., Kiraga, M., Kryskow, P. et al. (2022). Psilocybin microdosers demonstrate greater observed improvements in mood and mental health at one month relative to non-microdosing controls. <i>Scientific Reports<\/i> 12<b>, <\/b>11091 .<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-14512-3#citeas\"> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-14512-3<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ryu, I.S.; Kim, O.-H.; Lee, Y.E.; Kim, J.S.; Li, Z.-H.; Kim, T.W.; Lim, R.-N.; Lee, Y.J.; Cheong, J.H.; Kim, H.J.; Lee, Y.S.; Steffensen, S.C.; Lee, B.H.; Seo, J.-W.; Jang, E.Y. (2020). The Abuse Potential of Novel Synthetic Phencyclidine Derivative 1-(1-(4-Fluorophenyl)Cyclohexyl)Piperidine (4\u2032-F-PCP) in Rodents. <em>International Journal of Molecular Science<\/em> , <em>21<\/em>, 4631. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/13\/4631#cite\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms21134631 <\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Timmermann C, Roseman L, Williams L, Erritzoe D, Martial C, Cassol H, Laureys S, Nutt D and Carhart-Harris R (2018) DMT Models the Near-Death Experience. <i>Frontiers in Psychology.<\/i> 9:1424. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tribble, K. (2021, July 21). <em>How marijuana reform could repair, reclaim, and restore communities <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Yavi, M., Lee, H., Henter, I.D. et al. (2022). Ketamine treatment for depression: a review. <i>Discover Mental Health<\/i> 2, 9. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3<\/a><\/p>","rendered":"<h1>Chapter 7: Hallucinogens<\/h1>\n<p>By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Examine the dominant beliefs and attitudes in our society with regard to chemical use. <strong>(LO1)<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Define the characteristics of the major classes of drugs. <strong>(LO2)<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Identify and summarize the addiction process and the characteristics thereof. <strong>(LO3)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<div id=\"h5p-31\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-31\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"31\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"All-Arounders\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Overview<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_336\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-336\" style=\"width: 194px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-336\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"194\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1-194x300.jpg 194w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1-65x101.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1-225x348.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hall-plants1.jpg 323w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-336\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6935601963\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Hallucinogens are a tricky batch of drugs that can act like stimulants or act as depressants. This group of drugs may produce a sensory effect leading to additional alternations in perception, cognition, and mood (APA, 2022). These drugs can also be called psychedelic drugs and include: LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, peyote, MDMA, ketamine, PCP, DMT, and marijuana. These drugs are generally sorted into two categories: classic hallucinogens (like LSD) and dissociative drugs (like PCP) (NIDA, 2015). While there is a negative stigma associated with this group of drugs, there is burgeoning research that suggests there are medical and therapeutic uses for these drugs. Generally, there is a slim chance of: toxicity, addiction, dependence, and neurological affects during or after use (Lowe, 2022; Matzopoulos et al., 2022).<\/p>\n<h3>LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_322\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-322\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-322 size-medium\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD-350x233.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/LSD.jpg 2048w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-322\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?curid=96449756\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">File:Claviceps purpurea 47424140.jpg<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.inaturalist.org\/users\/740142\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Kasper Malmberg<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 4.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>LSD is very strong drug in this category that mimics neurotransmitters exerting its psychoactive effects on the user. It is unique because it interacts with both serotonin and dopamine receptors (Lowe, 2022).\u00a0 LSD has many aliases including but not limited to: acid, sugar cubs, trips, tabs, or windowpanes. Derived from a fungus (show at left), it is nearly undetectable and water soluble.\u00a0 The most common way to take this drug, besides orally, is for LSD-soaked paper to be cut into small, but potent, circles (NIDA, 2015).<\/p>\n<p>Early in its history, LSD was used to treat alcoholism and neurosis. But more recent studies have seen improvements in users who have the following diseases or situations: Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, criminal behavior, autism, frigidity, and many others (Lowe, 2022; Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022).<\/p>\n<p>Short-term sides effects of LSD are (NIDA, 2015):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Increased blood pressure and temperature<\/li>\n<li>Dizziness and fatigue<\/li>\n<li>Appetite suppression<\/li>\n<li>Feelings of numbness, weakness, and tremors<\/li>\n<li>Increase impulsivity and moodiness<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Psilocybin Mushroom<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 229px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-332\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-229x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Psilocybe Mexicana&quot; by Quasimondo is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"229\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-229x300.jpg 229w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-768x1006.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-65x85.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-225x295.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin-350x458.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/psilocybin.jpg 782w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/35468141611@N01\/98445472\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psilocybe Mexicana<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/35468141611@N01\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Quasimondo<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"32-326\">psilocybin <\/button> mushrooms (shown at right) has play an integral role in cultural traditions throughout Central and South America for centuries (Matzopoulos et al., 2022; Rootman et al., 2022). The effects users experienced were considered magical up to deep religious and spiritual experiences (Lowe, 2022; NIDA, 2015; Arce &amp; Winkelman et al., 2021). Because of its vital cultural role, it is one of the most studied psychedelic drugs. Currently, there are promising therapeutic uses for psilocybin mushrooms, like treating painful conditions, heart conditions, or mood and anxiety disorders, especially in the era of the COVID-19 pandemic (Lowe, 2022; Matzopoulos et al., 2022; Nkadimeng et al., 2020).\u00a0 The mushrooms can be consumed, orally, in a variety of ways ranging from raw to brewed with tea (NIDA, 2015); studies indicate that small doses are effective in treating symptoms without impairing regular functioning of the individual (Rootman et. al, 2022).<\/p>\n<p>Short-term side effects of psilocybin mushrooms are (NIDA, 2015):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Sense of ease or relaxation<\/li>\n<li>Anxiety<\/li>\n<li>Introspection<\/li>\n<li>Poisoning due to misidentification of mushrooms<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Peyote<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_363\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-363\" style=\"width: 342px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-363\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3-191x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Xochipilli, Aztec 'Prince of Flowers' - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"342\" height=\"537\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3-191x300.jpg 191w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3-65x102.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3-225x354.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants3.jpg 317w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-363\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6789455114\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Xochipilli, Aztec &#8216;Prince of Flowers&#8217; &#8211; Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Peyote is a small cactus with its main ingredient being mescaline. It has been used in Central and North America during cultural and religious experiences. The intoxicating liquid, produced when processing the cactus, that it is usually consumed via tea to tamp down the excessively bitter flavor (NIDA, 2015; APA, 2022; Hinojosa, 2018). The future of peyote is uncertain as it is not being used in a sustainable way and therefore can not regrow as quickly as it is consumed (APA, 2022; Ermakova et al., 2020). Learn more about peyote harvest and some of the practices from this article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas\">Peyote Veneration in Challenging Times: Issues of Land and Access in South Texas<\/a> (2018) and watch the video below called Drinking Psychedelic Peyote Juice in Mexico (2021).<\/p>\n<p>Short-term side effects of peyote are (NIDA, 2015):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Increased heart rate and temperature<\/li>\n<li>Ataxia<\/li>\n<li>Significant sweating<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"h5p-32\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-32\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"32\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Drinking Psychedelic Peyote Juice in Mexico\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)<\/h3>\n<p>This drug has an amphetamine-style experience with added hallucinations. It is typically sold as ecstasy. Individuals will experience the high very quickly and for a long time, even up to days (APA, 2022). Users of this drug may feel euphoric arousal with spiritual experiences. Research suggests that there are some long-term side effects like addiction, memory dysfunction, lack of control, and when used in high doses, it can be deadly (APA, 2022; Pantoni et al., 2022). And, other research has provided evidence that it can be beneficial in low-doses for safely treating intense disorders like PTSD (Mitchell et al., 2021; Arluk et al., 2022) and other anxiety-related experiences and disorders (Makunts et al., 2022; Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022)<\/p>\n<p>Some side effects that can be experienced are (Oehen &amp; Gaser, 2022)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Pain<\/li>\n<li>Cramps<\/li>\n<li>Dissociative symptoms<\/li>\n<li>Sensory hallucinations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"h5p-33\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-33\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"33\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Did You Know: MDMA\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Ketamine<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_348\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-348\" style=\"width: 240px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-348\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;ketamine&quot; by juliankopald is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0.\" width=\"240\" height=\"240\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine.jpg 240w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine-65x65.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/ketamine-225x225.jpg 225w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-348\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/132670395@N06\/20103179465\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">ketamine<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/132670395@N06\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">juliankopald<\/a> is marked with <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain Mark 1.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Ketamine, a cousin to PCP, often results in the user being disoriented and hallucinating. Typically, this drug is ingested in pill or powder form (APA, 2022). At one time, ketamine was used in veterinarian offices (NIDA, 2015), but eventually came to treat a variety of painful conditions and addiction (Carboni, 2021; Marcus &amp; Bruchas, 2021; Pribish, 2020), but more recently, it has been used to treat unique cases of bipolar-depression, where other treatments have proven ineffective (APA, 2022; Rawat et al., 2022; Yavi et al., 2022; Pribish, 2020). Because of its lack of odor and color, it has been used to spike drinks in order to commit sexual assault (NIDA, 2015). Ketamine is poorly understood or lacks the research to support potential benefits (Carboni, 2021; Marcus &amp; Bruchas, 2021).<\/p>\n<p>Side effects can include (Carboni, 2021):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\n<li>Nightmares or intense dreams<\/li>\n<li>Delusions<\/li>\n<li>Anesthesia (Pribish, 2020)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>PCP<\/h3>\n<p>PCP was originally developed for surgical uses, but later it was realized that it produces hallucinogenic responses (APA, 2022) and is now sought out for recreational uses (Ryu et al., 2020). This drug can consumed in a number of ways, though when it is smoked it is usually combined with marijuana or tobacco (NIDA, 2015).<\/p>\n<p>Symptoms of use, can include (APA, 2022):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Schizophrenia (both positive and negative symptoms)<\/li>\n<li>Agitation<\/li>\n<li>Delirium<\/li>\n<li>Disorientation<\/li>\n<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"h5p-34\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-34\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"34\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"PCP - Angel Dust Effects on the body\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>DMT and Ayahuasca<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_331\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-331\" style=\"width: 486px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-331\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-300x228.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Preparing Ayahuasca - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden-Guide 102a&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"486\" height=\"369\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-300x228.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-225x171.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2-350x266.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/hallplants2.jpg 499w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-331\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6940782199\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Preparing Ayahuasca &#8211; Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden-Guide 102a<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>DMT is a powerful psychoactive ingredient found in a plant species native to the Amazon. Synthetic versions of this drug are usually a white powder that is smoked. Ayahuasca is made from similar Amazonian plants as well, but is usually consumed in the form of tea in South America (NIDA, 2015; APA, 2022). These drugs are characterized by short periods of hallucinations (Timmermann et al., 2018; Alamia, 2020) and while it is generally safe to use, it cannot be easily broken down in the body and may negatively react with other drugs (Lowe, 2022). Ayahuasca is typically reserved for spiritual and cultural ceremonies but can also act as an aphrodisiac and in the diagnosis of other disorders (Lowe, 2022; APA, 2022). It is a trending component of South American tourism that began in the Amazon, but is spreading to other South American countries as well and beyond into North America and Europe (Lowe, 2022).<\/p>\n<p>Side effects can include (APA, 2022):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Nausea<\/li>\n<li>Vomiting<\/li>\n<li>Tinnitus<\/li>\n<li>Euphoria<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Marijuana<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_364\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-364\" style=\"width: 287px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-364\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Cannabis Sativa - Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide&quot; by Howard G Charing is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"287\" height=\"444\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1-194x300.jpg 194w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1-65x101.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1-225x349.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/cannabis1.jpg 322w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-364\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\/6789455134\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cannabis Sativa &#8211; Hallucinogenic Plants A Golden Guide<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/9671795@N04\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Howard G Charing<\/a> is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Also known as cannabis, these species of plants make up a very popular recreational drug. In fact, globally is it the most popular controlled substance (Graves et al., 2020; Latif &amp; Garg, 2020) The psychoactive component known as THC, is contained in the flowers of the plant (APA, 2022). This drug is typically smoked and the user feels the high for roughly three hours. Learn more about cannabis, how it effects the brain, medicine, communities, and businesses by watching the playlist below.<\/p>\n<p>Side effects can include (APA, 2022):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Euphoria<\/li>\n<li>Hallucinations<\/li>\n<li>Lack of memory or focus<\/li>\n<li>Food cravings<\/li>\n<li>Anxiety<\/li>\n<li>Tolerance<\/li>\n<li>Withdrawal<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Research also suggests that there could be severe effects on the cardiovascular system by using this drug, check out this study for more information: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2077-0383\/9\/6\/1925\/htm\">The Impact of Marijuana on the Cardiovascular System: A Review of the Most Common Cardiovascular Events Associated with Marijuana Use<\/a> (Latif &amp; Garg, 2020).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-35\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-35\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"35\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Marijuana Playlist\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>References<\/h2>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Alamia, A., Timmermann, C., Nutt, D., VanRullen, R.,\u00a0 Carhart-Harris, R. (2020) DMT alters cortical travelling waves. <em>eLife<\/em> 9:e59784 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/59784\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.59784<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cannabis. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cannabis<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Hallucinogen. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/hallucinogen<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Associations (2022). <em>LSD.<\/em> APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/lsd<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Peyote. <\/em>APA. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/peyote<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Arluk, S., Matar, M.A., Carmi, L. et al.<i>(2022)<\/i> MDMA treatment paired with a trauma-cue promotes adaptive stress responses in a translational model of PTSD in rats. <i>Transl Psychiatry<\/i> 12, 181 . <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41398-022-01952-8#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41398-022-01952-8<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bahji, A. (2019, December 2). <em>Is marijuana bad for your brain? <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Carboni E, Carta AR, Carboni E &amp; Novelli A (2021) .Repurposing Ketamine in Depression and Related Disorders: Can This Enigmatic Drug Achieve Success? <i>Frontiers in Neuroscience,<\/i> 15:657714. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fnins.2021.657714<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Casarett, D. (2017, May 17). <em>A doctor&#8217;s case for medical marijuana <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cort, B. (2018, September 25). <em>What commercialization is doing to cannabis <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">dakota of earth (2021, January 2). <em>Drinking psychedelic peyote juice in Mexico <\/em>[Video&#8217;]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=htwxsM7ZbEA<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ermakova, A., Whiting, C., Trout, K., Clubbe, C., Fowler, N., Terry, M. (2020). Ecology and conservation of peyote in Texas, USA: Comparative survey of <em>Lophophora williamsii <\/em>populations in Tamaulipan Thornscrub and Chihuahuan Desert. <em>Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas. <\/em><span class=\"highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.biorxiv.org\/content\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515v1.full\"><span class=\"label\">doi:<\/span> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1101\/2020.04.03.023515<\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Graves, B., Johnson, T., Nishida, R., Dias, R., Savareear, B., Harynuk, J., Kazemimanesh, M., Olfert., J. &amp; Boies, A. (2020). Comprehensive characterization of mainstream marijuana and tobacco smoke. <em>Scientific Reports 10, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-020-63120-6#citeas<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hinojosa, S. (2018).\u00a0Peyote veneration in challenging times: Issues of land and access in South Texas. <em>Arcadia, 19, <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas\">https:\/\/www.environmentandsociety.org\/arcadia\/peyote-veneration-challenging-times-issues-land-and-access-south-texas<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Latif, Z &amp; Garg, N. (2020)\u00a0The impact of marijuana on the cardiovascular system: A review of the most common cardiovascular events associate with marijuana use. <em>Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(6). <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9061925\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/jcm9061925<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Lowe, H., Toyang, N., Steele, B., Grant, J., Ali, A., Gordon, L., &amp; Ngwa, W. (2022). Psychedelics: Alternative and potential therapeutic options for treating mood and anxiety disorders. <em>Molecules, 27(8). <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/8\/2520\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27082520<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Makunts T, Jerome L, Abagyan R., &amp; de Boer A (2022). Reported cases of serotonin syndrome in MDMA users in FAERS database. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:824288. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.824288<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Marcus, D. &amp; Bruchas, B. (2021) Antidepressants: Where ketamine and dopamine collide <em>eLife<\/em> 10:e70148 <a href=\"https:\/\/elifesciences.org\/articles\/70148\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/eLife.70148<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Matzopoulos R, Morlock R, Morlock A, Lerer B and Lerer L (2022). Psychedelic mushrooms in the USA: Knowledge, patterns of use, and association with health outcomes. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 12:780696. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.780696<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">National Institute on Drug Abuse (2015). <em>Hallucinogens and dissociative drugs.<\/em> NIDA. Retrieved July 21, 2022 from<em><a href=\"https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/25\/2017\/06\/Hallucinogens-Dissociative-Drugs-NIDA.pdf\">https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/25\/2017\/06\/Hallucinogens-Dissociative-Drugs-NIDA.pdf<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">New Zealand Drug Administration (2022, February 17). <em>Did you know: MDMA <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=AeK1biRUoSE\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=AeK1biRUoSE<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Oehen P and Gasser P (2022) Using a MDMA- and LSD-group therapy model in clinical practice in Switzerland and highlighting the treatment of trauma-related disorders. <i>Frontiers in Psychiatry<\/i> 13:863552. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.863552\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.863552<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pantoni, M.M., Kim, J.L., Van Alstyne, K.R. et al. (2022). MDMA and memory, addiction, and depression: dose-effect analysis. <i>Psychopharmacology<\/i> 239<b>, <\/b>935\u2013949. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00213-022-06086-9#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s00213-022-06086-9<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pribish, A., Wood, N., &amp; Kalava, A. (2020). <span class=\"adjust-article-svg-size\">A review of nonanesthetic uses of ketamine.<\/span> <i>Anesthesiology Research and Practice.<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/arp\/2020\/5798285\/\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2020\/5798285<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rawat, R., Tunc-Ozcan, E., McGuire, T.L. et al<i>. (2022).<\/i> Ketamine activates adult-born immature granule neurons to rapidly alleviate depression-like behaviors in mice. <i>Nature Communications,<\/i> <b>13, <\/b>2650. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-022-30386-5#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41467-022-30386-5<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rodr\u00edguez Arce JM &amp; Winkelman MJ (2021) Psychedelics, Sociality, and Human Evolution. <i>Frontiers in Psychol.<\/i> 12:729425. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.729425\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.729425<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rootman, J.M., Kiraga, M., Kryskow, P. et al. (2022). Psilocybin microdosers demonstrate greater observed improvements in mood and mental health at one month relative to non-microdosing controls. <i>Scientific Reports<\/i> 12<b>, <\/b>11091 .<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-022-14512-3#citeas\"> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/s41598-022-14512-3<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ryu, I.S.; Kim, O.-H.; Lee, Y.E.; Kim, J.S.; Li, Z.-H.; Kim, T.W.; Lim, R.-N.; Lee, Y.J.; Cheong, J.H.; Kim, H.J.; Lee, Y.S.; Steffensen, S.C.; Lee, B.H.; Seo, J.-W.; Jang, E.Y. (2020). The Abuse Potential of Novel Synthetic Phencyclidine Derivative 1-(1-(4-Fluorophenyl)Cyclohexyl)Piperidine (4\u2032-F-PCP) in Rodents. <em>International Journal of Molecular Science<\/em> , <em>21<\/em>, 4631. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/13\/4631#cite\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms21134631 <\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Timmermann C, Roseman L, Williams L, Erritzoe D, Martial C, Cassol H, Laureys S, Nutt D and Carhart-Harris R (2018) DMT Models the Near-Death Experience. <i>Frontiers in Psychology.<\/i> 9:1424. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.01424<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tribble, K. (2021, July 21). <em>How marijuana reform could repair, reclaim, and restore communities <\/em>[Video]. YouTube. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KyVSuI6JyOs<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Yavi, M., Lee, H., Henter, I.D. et al. (2022). Ketamine treatment for depression: a review. <i>Discover Mental Health<\/i> 2, 9. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3#citeas\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s44192-022-00012-3<\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"32-326\" hidden><p>the active ingredient in more than 200 species of mushrooms.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/32"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":47,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/32\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":367,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/32\/revisions\/367"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/32\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=32"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=32"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=32"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=32"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}