{"id":24,"date":"2022-06-10T16:32:47","date_gmt":"2022-06-10T16:32:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=24"},"modified":"2023-07-10T11:33:19","modified_gmt":"2023-07-10T11:33:19","slug":"chapter-3-stimulants","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/chapter\/chapter-3-stimulants\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 3: Stimulants","rendered":"Chapter 3: Stimulants"},"content":{"raw":"<h1>Chapter 3: Stimulants<\/h1>\r\nBy the end of this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define the characteristics of the major classes of drugs. <strong>(LO2)<\/strong><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify and summarize the addiction process and the characteristics thereof. <strong>(LO3)<\/strong><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"9\"]\r\n<h2>Overview of Stimulants<\/h2>\r\nStimulants are drugs that typically increase overall levels of neural activity (Lumen; Florida State College). Drugs in this category include, but are not limited to: cocaine, amphetamines, bath salts, MDMA, nicotine, and caffeine. The most common routes for using stimulants are [pb_glossary id=\"137\"]oral consumption[\/pb_glossary], intranasal or snorting, inhalation (usually smoking), and [pb_glossary id=\"141\"]intravenously[\/pb_glossary] with a hypodermic syringe (Rawson, 1999; Wisconsin Technical College System). This chapter will cover some of the most common stimulants used.\r\n<h3>Concepts to Remember:<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Many of these drugs act as [pb_glossary id=\"135\"]agonists [\/pb_glossary] (APA, 2022) of the user system (Vosburg, et al, 2021).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The opposite of an agonist is an antagonist, which binds the drug and the receptor and halts natural function of the receptor (Nguyen, 2018).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Furthermore, up-regulation and down-regulation play a role in abuse but also withdrawal (and relapse). Up-regulation is when the number of receptors that are fully functioning, without drug use, increases. When the number of receptors decreases, it is called down-regulation. Relapse is so prevalent because the body does not immediately recover from drug use, it needs time to return to its natural function and balance (OpenStax, 2020).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"237\"]half-life [\/pb_glossary]of a drug is important to understand how long a substance remains in the body (APA, 2022). Below are some slides and further information related to half-life. Select the double-pointed arrow, in the lower right corner to enlarge the slides.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[h5p id=\"17\"]\r\n<h3>Cocaine<\/h3>\r\nCocaine is derived from a South American shrub called coca (APA, 2022). The coca leaves contain a psychoactive component which is what we know as cocaine. For thousands of years, indigenous people have chewed coca leaves to also know as \"khoka\" in some cultures (Biondich &amp; Joslin, 2016). It was chewed for numerous purposes including ceremonies and other social and physiological benefits. European and American cultures began limiting their usage of cocaine once its addictive nature and side effects became more widely known (Sanvisens, et al., 2021. However, many indigenous people still chew the coca leaves for the following benefits:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Gastrointestinal Treatment: Relieves stomach pain, spasms, nausea, indigestion, mouth sores, tooth aches, constipation, and diarrhea.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Environmental Stress Treatment: Relieves symptoms of hypoxia and altitude sickness and suppresses feelings of hunger and cold.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Physiological Treatment: Stabilizes blood sugar.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nMove the middle bar to the right to view an image of coca leaves; move the middle bar to the left to view cocaine.\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"10\"]\r\n<h3>Amphetamines<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_149\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"327\"]<img class=\"wp-image-149\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/amphetamines-cartoon.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Vintage ad for amphetamines&quot; by Tengrain is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"327\" height=\"457\" \/> \"Vintage ad for amphetamines\" by Tengrain is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAmphetamines are synthetic drugs that stimulate the brain and have been tricked to release [pb_glossary id=\"155\"]norepinephrine[\/pb_glossary] (APA, 2022). First synthesized in 1887 in Germany, it became a common pharmacy drug in the early 1930s. Later, it was introduced during World War II to keep troops on both sides alert for over two full days. In modern treatments, it is used to help reduce or manage the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), severe depression, and narcolepsy (IUPHAR\/BPS, 2022; Lueithi &amp; Liechti, 2020; Reyes-Parada, et al., 2020). It has been used in the military for extreme cases, as well. Amphetamines produce a wide range of effects on the user, including several parts of the brain (Ferruci, 2019; Tait, et al. 2014; Tran, et al., 2021).\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Prefrontal Cortex: affects cognition and arousal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hypothalmus: affects food intake, thermoregulation, and arousal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Limbic System: affects emotions, learning, memory, rewards, addiction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Brainstem-Spinal Cord-Periphery: affects locomotion, cardiovascular and respiratory rhythm, pain perception<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Plant-Based Stimulants<\/h3>\r\nReview the following slides to learn more about plant-based stimulants (APA, 2022; Athukorala, et al., 2021; Drug Policy Alliance, 2022; Hon et al., 2021; USFS, 2022) Select the arrow in the lower right corner to expand the slides to full screen.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"11\"]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3>Caffeine<\/h3>\r\nCaffeine is a socially acceptable stimulant that is widely used to increase alertness and performance (Agoston et al., 2022; Munis, et al., 2017). It is a plant-derived, bitter substance that is found in seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves in plants indigenous to Africa, East Asia, and South America (\"Caffeine\", 2022) (APA, 2022). Caffeine acts as a defense mechanism for plants, due to its bitter taste, keeping plant-eaters away and outliving the competition. The best known source of caffeine is coffee, which millions of people consume daily (often many times daily!) (\"History\", 2022). It is the most widely consumed (and sanctioned) psychoactive drug in the world because it is legal and unregulated nearly everywhere in the world (Franke et al. (2021). Caffeine has its own slew of positive and negative affects. Review the graphic below to learn more about the pros and cons of consuming caffeine.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_162\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1062\"]<img class=\"wp-image-162\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png\" alt=\"Pros of coffee: Increased alertness Reduced fatigue More clear thoughts Reduces cold symptoms Enhance cognitive performance Less stigmatized Elevates mood Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence Withdrawal Tolerance Self-medication Impulsivity Aggression Diuretic Dehydrant:\" width=\"1062\" height=\"598\" \/> Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Nicotine<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_170\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"387\"]<img class=\" wp-image-170\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-300x175.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Nicotine label&quot; by Alachua County is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0. \" width=\"387\" height=\"226\" \/> \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/66143513@N03\/48899251437\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Nicotine label<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/66143513@N03\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Alachua County<\/a> is marked with <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain Mark 1.0<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNicotine is another plant-based stimulant that is mostly derived from tobacco plants (APA, 2022). Like caffeine, it is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs; it is the leading cause of preventable death and disease worldwide. Nicotine, found when smoking or chewing tobacco, releases a shot of [pb_glossary id=\"166\"]glucose[\/pb_glossary] into the system which thereby increases blood pressure, respiration, heart rate, and can lead to addiction (IUPHAR\/BPS, 2022). Users are often more alert, feel more calm during stressful situations, and can also act as an appetite suppressant. However, in large doses, nicotine is toxic and can eventually result in death. Some negative effects of nicotine usages include dizziness, diarrha, vomiting, spasms, and heart attact. (Mahajan, et al., 2021; Quach, et al., 2020)\r\n\r\nTobacco smoke is also deadly. Exposure to tobacco smoke, even from electronic cigarettes, can increase the risk for stroke, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, and other diseases. Even just the tiniest bit of smoke contained thousands of hazardous chemicals and is an addictive substance (Sharma, et al., 2022).\r\n\r\nWithdrawal from nicotine can include the following symptoms, read more here about the symptoms and how to manage them: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">7 Common Withdrawal Symptoms<\/a> (CDC)\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Having the urge to smoke<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Irritable or crabby<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Feeling restless and excitable<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Lack of focus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Difficulty sleeping<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Increase in appetite (and weight)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Increased feelings of anxiety, sadness, or depression<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[h5p id=\"50\"]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_173\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"539\"]<img class=\"wp-image-173 \" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-300x252.png\" alt=\"Supplement facts\" width=\"539\" height=\"453\" \/> Proprietary Blend: Elation, Euphoria, Pleasure, Social Relationships Impaired, Impaired Cognition, Elevated Blood Pressure, Increased Respiration, Increased Body Temperature, Heart and Respiratory Failure, Hemorrhaging, Seizures\/Convulsions, Stroke, Brain Damage[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<h2>References:<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Agoston, C., Urban, R., Horvath, Z., van den Brink, W. &amp; Demetrovics, Z. (2022). Self-medication of ADHD symptoms: Does caffeine have a role? <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 13(8). <a href=\"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">AlAteeq, D., Alotaibi, R., Saqer, R., Alharbi, N., Alotaibi, M., Musllet, R., &amp; Alraqibah, R. (2021). Caffeine consumption, intoxication, and stress among female university students: a cross-sectional study. <em>Middle East Current Psychiatry, 28<\/em>(30). <a href=\"https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5\">https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Agonist. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/agonist\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/agonist<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Amphetamines. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Caffeine. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cocaine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Ephedra.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/ephedra\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/ephedra<\/a><\/p>\r\nAmerican Psychological Association (2022). <em>Half-life. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/half-life\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/half-life<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Khat.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/khat\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/khat<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Nicotine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/nicotine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/nicotine<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Athukorala, I., Tilakaratne, W., Jayasinghe, R. (2021). Areca nut chewing: Initiation, addiction, and harmful effects emphasizing the barriers and importance of cessation. <em>Journal of Addiction.<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jad\/2021\/9967097\/\"> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/9967097<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Biondich, A. &amp; Joslin, J. (2016). Coca: The history and medical significance of an ancient Andean tradition. <em>Emergency Medicine International.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">\"Caffeine\" (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine<\/a><\/p>\r\nCenter for Disease Control (2021). <em>7 common withdrawal symptoms. <\/em>CDC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cusack, P. (2020, May 14). Addiction of Caffeine and Sugar. <em>Open Access Journal of Addiction and Psychology, 3<\/em>(5). <a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575\">DOI: 10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">dePaula, J. &amp; Farah, A. (2019). Caffeine consumption through coffee: Content in the beverage, metabolism, health benefits and risks. <em>Beverages, 5<\/em>(2), 37. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2306-5710\/5\/2\/37\/htm\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/beverages5020037<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Drug Policy Alliance (2022). <em>What are bath salts. <\/em>Drug Policy Alliance. <a href=\"https:\/\/drugpolicy.org\/what-are-bath-salts?ms=5B1_22GoogleSEM&amp;utm_source=GoogleSEM&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=SEM&amp;cid=7011K000001SFcBQAW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwq5-WBhB7EiwAl-HEkmpYb-z-xG3FDi5s3Qfya-VBbeNkaaRhqWSJ4P8m5rPKWTXzKIeelBoCMFAQAvD_BwE\">https:\/\/drugpolicy.org\/what-are-bath-salts?ms=5B1_22GoogleSEM&amp;utm_source=GoogleSEM&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=SEM&amp;cid=7011K000001SFcBQAW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwq5-WBhB7EiwAl-HEkmpYb-z-xG3FDi5s3Qfya-VBbeNkaaRhqWSJ4P8m5rPKWTXzKIeelBoCMFAQAvD_BwE<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ferruci, M., Limanaqi, F., Ryskalin, L., Biagioni, F., Busceti, C., &amp; Forni, F. (2019). The effects of amphetamine and methamphetamine on the release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine from the brainstem reticular formation. <em>Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 13<\/em>(48). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnana.2019.00048<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Florida State College at Jacksonville (n.d.) <em>General psychology.<\/em> Pressbooks. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/fscj.pressbooks.pub\/psychology\/chapter\/substance-use-and-abuse\/\">https:\/\/fscj.pressbooks.pub\/psychology\/chapter\/substance-use-and-abuse\/<\/a><\/p>\r\nFood and Drug Administration (2018). <em>Drugs of Abuse Home Use Test. <\/em>US FDA. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/drugs-abuse-tests\/drugs-abuse-home-use-test\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medical-devices\/drugs-abuse-tests\/drugs-abuse-home-use-test<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Franke, A., Koller, G., Krause, D., Proebtstl, L., Kamp, F., Pogarell, O., Jebrini, T., Manz, K., Chrobok, A., &amp;\u00a0 Soyka, M. (2021) Just \"life coffee\" or neuroenhancement by stimulants. <em>Frontiers in Public Health, 9. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.640154<\/a><\/p>\r\nHallare, J. &amp; Gerriets, V. (2021). <em>Half life. <\/em>National Library of Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK554498\/\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK554498\/<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">\"History and culture of substituted amphetamines\" (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines#cite_note-Edeleanu-2\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines#cite_note-Edeleanu-2<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hon, M., Kim, H., Jang, Y., Na, S., Han, B., Yoon, J., Seo, C., Lee, HJ. Lee, Y. and Kang, D. (2021). New therapeutive insight into the effect of ma huang tang on blood pressure and renal dysfunction in the L-NAME-Induced hypertension. <em>Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/ecam\/2021\/9980429\/\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/9980429<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology \/ British Pharmacological Society (2022). <em>Amphetamine. <\/em>IUPHAR\/BPS Guide to Pharmacology. Retrieved on July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guidetopharmacology.org\/GRAC\/LigandDisplayForward?tab=clinical&amp;ligandId=4804\">https:\/\/www.guidetopharmacology.org\/GRAC\/LigandDisplayForward?tab=clinical&amp;ligandId=4804<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology \/ British Pharmacological Society (2022). <em>Nicotine.<\/em> IUPHAR\/BPS Guide to Pharmacology. Retrieved on July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.guidetopharmacology.org\/GRAC\/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId=2585\">https:\/\/www.guidetopharmacology.org\/GRAC\/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId=2585<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Luethi, D. &amp; Liechti, M. (2020). Designer drugs: Mechanism of action and adverse effects. <em>Archives of Toxicology, 94, <\/em>1085-1133. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00204-020-02693-7\">https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1007\/s00204-020-02693-7<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Lumen Learning (n.d.) <em>Introduction to psychology. <\/em>Lumen. <a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-stimulants\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/chapter\/reading-stimulants\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Mahajan, S., Jomis, G., Quisenberry, A. (2021). Multifactorial etiology of adolescent nicotine addiction:\u00a0 A review of the neurobiology of nicotine addiction and its implications for smoking cessation pharmacotherapy. <em>Frontiers in Public Health,<\/em> 9. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.664748\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpubh.2021.664748<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Mills, L., Dar-Nimrod, I., &amp; Colagiuri, B. (2017). Effect of genetic information and information about caffeine content on caffeine withdrawal symptoms. <em>Scientific Reports 7<\/em>(8407). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-08678-4\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41598-017-08678-4<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Munis, J., Prieto, J., Gonzalez, B., Sosa, M., Cadet, J., Scorza, C., Urbano, F., Bisagno, V. (2017). Cocaine and caffeine effects on the conditioned place preference test: Concomitant changes on early genes within the mouse prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. <em>Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2017.00200\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2017.00200<\/a><\/p>\r\nNguyen, A. (2018). <em>Agonists and antagonists. <\/em>UTS. Retrieved July 18, 2022, from <a href=\"https:\/\/lx.uts.edu.au\/pharmacology\/article\/agonists-and-antagonists\/\">https:\/\/lx.uts.edu.au\/pharmacology\/article\/agonists-and-antagonists\/<\/a>\r\n\r\nOpenStax (2020). <em>How hormones work.<\/em> LibreTexts. Retrieved on July 18, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/bio.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Hanover_College\/Comparative_Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals\/08%3A_The_Endocrine_System\/8.03%3A_How_Hormones_Work\">https:\/\/bio.libretexts.org\/Courses\/Hanover_College\/Comparative_Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals\/08%3A_The_Endocrine_System\/8.03%3A_How_Hormones_Work<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pixorize (2021). <em>Stimulants Mnemonic for MCAT<\/em> [Video]. YouTube.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4i9RnuCnETY\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4i9RnuCnETY<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Quach, B., Bray, M., Gaddis, N., Liu, M., Palviainen, T., Minica, C., Zellers, S., Sherva, R., Aliev, F., Nothnagel, M., Young, K., Marks, J., Young, H., Carnes, M., Guo, Y., Waldrop, A., Sey, N., Landi, M., McNeil, D., Drichel, D., ... Hancock, D. (2020). Expanding the genetic architecture of nicotine dependence and its shared genetics with multiple traits. <em>Nature Communications, <\/em>11, 5562. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-020-19265-z#author-information\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-020-19265-z#author-information<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rawson, R. (1999). TIP 33: Treatment for stimulant use disorders: Treatment improvement protocol (TIP) 33. <em>United States Department of Health and Human Services. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/23\/2017\/06\/TIP-33.pdf\">https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/23\/2017\/06\/TIP-33.pdf<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Reyes-Parada, M., Iturriaga-Vasquez, P., Cassels, B. (2020). Amphetamine derivatives as monoamine oxidase inhibitors. <em>Frontiers in Pharmacology, 10. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2019.01590\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2019.01590,<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Robbins, T. (2021). Neurocognition in stimulant addiction: Commentary on Kendrick et al (2021). <em>Psychoradiology, 1<\/em>(2), 88-90. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/psyrad\/kkab008\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/psyrad\/kkab008<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rosenkranz, M., O'Donnell, A., Verthein, U., Zurhold, H., Addison, M., Liebregts, N., Rowicka, M., Bartak, M\/, Petruzelka, B., Kaner, E., Martens, M-S. (2019). Understanding pathways to stimulant use:\u00a0 A mixed-methods examination of the individual, social, and cultural factors shaping illicit stimulant use across Europe: Study Protocol. <em>BMJ Open, 9. <\/em><span class=\"highwire-cite-metadata-doi highwire-cite-metadata\"><a href=\"https:\/\/bmjopen.bmj.com\/content\/9\/8\/e029476.info\"><span class=\"label\">doi:<\/span> 10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-029476<\/a> <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Sanvisens, A., Hernandez-Rubio, A., Zuluaga, P., Fuster, D., Papaseit, E., Galan, S., Farre, M., &amp; Muga, R. (2021). Long-term outcomes of patients with cocaine use disorder: A 18-years addiction cohort study. <em>Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2021.625610\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fphar.2021.625610<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Sharma, S., Archie, S., Kanchanwala, V., Mimun, K., Rahman, M., Zhang, Y., &amp; Abbruscato, T. (2022, April 26). Effects of nicotine exposure from tobacco products and electronic cigarettes on the pathogenesis of neurological diseases: Impact on CNS drug delivery. <em>Frontiers in Drug Delivery. 2.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fddev.2022.886099\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fddev.2022.886099<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tait, R., McKetin, R., Kay, Lambkin, F., Carron-Arthur, B., Bennett, A., Bennett, K., Christensen, H., &amp; Griffiths, K. (2014). A web-based intervention for users of amphetamine-type stimulants: 3-Month outcomes of a randomized controlled trial. <em>JMIR Publications, 1<\/em>(1). <a href=\"https:\/\/mental.jmir.org\/2014\/1\/e1\/\">https:\/\/mental.jmir.org\/2014\/1\/e1\/<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Temple, J.,\u00a0 Bernard, C., Lipshultz, S., Czachor, J., Westphal, J., Mestre, M. (2017). The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 8<\/em>(80). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080<\/a><\/p>\r\nThomas, S. (2022). <em>How long do drugs stay in your system? (Drug half-life and drug tests). <\/em>American Addiction Centers. <a href=\"https:\/\/americanaddictioncenters.org\/how-long-drugs-system#_edn1\">https:\/\/americanaddictioncenters.org\/how-long-drugs-system#_edn1<\/a>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tran, M., Luong, Q., Minh, G., Dunne, M., &amp; Baker, P. (2021). Psychosocial interventions for amphetamine type stimulant use disorder: An overview of systematic reviews. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 10. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.512076\/full\">https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.512076\/full<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">United States Forest Service. (2022). Stimulants. USDA. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.fed.us\/wildflowers\/ethnobotany\/Mind_and_Spirit\/stimulants.shtml\">https:\/\/www.fs.fed.us\/wildflowers\/ethnobotany\/Mind_and_Spirit\/stimulants.shtml<\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Vosburg, S., Robbins, R., Antshel, K., Faraone, S., &amp; Green, J. (2021). Characterizing pathways of non-oral prescription stimulant non-medical use among adults recruited from Reddit. <em>Frontiers in Psychology.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.631792\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.631792<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wisconsin Technical College System (n.d.). <em>Nursing pharmacology. <\/em>Pressbooks. <a href=\"https:\/\/wtcs.pressbooks.pub\/pharmacology\/chapter\/1-6-cns-stimulants\/\">https:\/\/wtcs.pressbooks.pub\/pharmacology\/chapter\/1-6-cns-stimulants\/<\/a><\/p>","rendered":"<h1>Chapter 3: Stimulants<\/h1>\n<p>By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Define the characteristics of the major classes of drugs. <strong>(LO2)<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Identify and summarize the addiction process and the characteristics thereof. <strong>(LO3)<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<div id=\"h5p-9\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-9\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"9\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"What are Stimulants?\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Overview of Stimulants<\/h2>\n<p>Stimulants are drugs that typically increase overall levels of neural activity (Lumen; Florida State College). Drugs in this category include, but are not limited to: cocaine, amphetamines, bath salts, MDMA, nicotine, and caffeine. The most common routes for using stimulants are <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-137\">oral consumption<\/button>, intranasal or snorting, inhalation (usually smoking), and <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-141\">intravenously<\/button> with a hypodermic syringe (Rawson, 1999; Wisconsin Technical College System). This chapter will cover some of the most common stimulants used.<\/p>\n<h3>Concepts to Remember:<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Many of these drugs act as <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-135\">agonists <\/button> (APA, 2022) of the user system (Vosburg, et al, 2021).<\/li>\n<li>The opposite of an agonist is an antagonist, which binds the drug and the receptor and halts natural function of the receptor (Nguyen, 2018).<\/li>\n<li>Furthermore, up-regulation and down-regulation play a role in abuse but also withdrawal (and relapse). Up-regulation is when the number of receptors that are fully functioning, without drug use, increases. When the number of receptors decreases, it is called down-regulation. Relapse is so prevalent because the body does not immediately recover from drug use, it needs time to return to its natural function and balance (OpenStax, 2020).<\/li>\n<li>The <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-237\">half-life <\/button>of a drug is important to understand how long a substance remains in the body (APA, 2022). Below are some slides and further information related to half-life. Select the double-pointed arrow, in the lower right corner to enlarge the slides.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"h5p-17\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-17\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"17\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Half Life\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Cocaine<\/h3>\n<p>Cocaine is derived from a South American shrub called coca (APA, 2022). The coca leaves contain a psychoactive component which is what we know as cocaine. For thousands of years, indigenous people have chewed coca leaves to also know as &#8220;khoka&#8221; in some cultures (Biondich &amp; Joslin, 2016). It was chewed for numerous purposes including ceremonies and other social and physiological benefits. European and American cultures began limiting their usage of cocaine once its addictive nature and side effects became more widely known (Sanvisens, et al., 2021. However, many indigenous people still chew the coca leaves for the following benefits:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Gastrointestinal Treatment: Relieves stomach pain, spasms, nausea, indigestion, mouth sores, tooth aches, constipation, and diarrhea.<\/li>\n<li>Environmental Stress Treatment: Relieves symptoms of hypoxia and altitude sickness and suppresses feelings of hunger and cold.<\/li>\n<li>Physiological Treatment: Stabilizes blood sugar.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Move the middle bar to the right to view an image of coca leaves; move the middle bar to the left to view cocaine.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-10\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-10\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"10\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Coca Into Cocaine\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Amphetamines<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_149\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-149\" style=\"width: 327px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-149\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/amphetamines-cartoon.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Vintage ad for amphetamines&quot; by Tengrain is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.\" width=\"327\" height=\"457\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/amphetamines-cartoon.jpg 172w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/amphetamines-cartoon-65x91.jpg 65w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-149\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;Vintage ad for amphetamines&#8221; by Tengrain is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Amphetamines are synthetic drugs that stimulate the brain and have been tricked to release <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-155\">norepinephrine<\/button> (APA, 2022). First synthesized in 1887 in Germany, it became a common pharmacy drug in the early 1930s. Later, it was introduced during World War II to keep troops on both sides alert for over two full days. In modern treatments, it is used to help reduce or manage the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), severe depression, and narcolepsy (IUPHAR\/BPS, 2022; Lueithi &amp; Liechti, 2020; Reyes-Parada, et al., 2020). It has been used in the military for extreme cases, as well. Amphetamines produce a wide range of effects on the user, including several parts of the brain (Ferruci, 2019; Tait, et al. 2014; Tran, et al., 2021).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Prefrontal Cortex: affects cognition and arousal<\/li>\n<li>Hypothalmus: affects food intake, thermoregulation, and arousal<\/li>\n<li>Limbic System: affects emotions, learning, memory, rewards, addiction<\/li>\n<li>Brainstem-Spinal Cord-Periphery: affects locomotion, cardiovascular and respiratory rhythm, pain perception<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Plant-Based Stimulants<\/h3>\n<p>Review the following slides to learn more about plant-based stimulants (APA, 2022; Athukorala, et al., 2021; Drug Policy Alliance, 2022; Hon et al., 2021; USFS, 2022) Select the arrow in the lower right corner to expand the slides to full screen.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-11\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-11\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"11\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Plant Based Stimulants\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Caffeine<\/h3>\n<p>Caffeine is a socially acceptable stimulant that is widely used to increase alertness and performance (Agoston et al., 2022; Munis, et al., 2017). It is a plant-derived, bitter substance that is found in seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves in plants indigenous to Africa, East Asia, and South America (&#8220;Caffeine&#8221;, 2022) (APA, 2022). Caffeine acts as a defense mechanism for plants, due to its bitter taste, keeping plant-eaters away and outliving the competition. The best known source of caffeine is coffee, which millions of people consume daily (often many times daily!) (&#8220;History&#8221;, 2022). It is the most widely consumed (and sanctioned) psychoactive drug in the world because it is legal and unregulated nearly everywhere in the world (Franke et al. (2021). Caffeine has its own slew of positive and negative affects. Review the graphic below to learn more about the pros and cons of consuming caffeine.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_162\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-162\" style=\"width: 1062px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img class=\"wp-image-162\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png\" alt=\"Pros of coffee: Increased alertness Reduced fatigue More clear thoughts Reduces cold symptoms Enhance cognitive performance Less stigmatized Elevates mood Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence Withdrawal Tolerance Self-medication Impulsivity Aggression Diuretic Dehydrant:\" width=\"1062\" height=\"598\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-300x169.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-1024x576.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-768x432.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-1536x864.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-65x37.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-225x127.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation-350x197.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/sandbox-presentation.png 1920w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-162\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pros of coffee: Increased alertness, Reduced fatigue, More clear thoughts, Reduces cold symptoms, Enhance cognitive performance, Less stigmatized, Elevates mood, &amp; Pain reliever. Cons of Coffee: Dependence, Withdrawal, Tolerance, Self-medication, Impulsivity, Aggression, Diuretic, Dehydrant (AlAteeq, et al, 2021; Cusack, 2020; dePaula and Farah, 2019; Mills, et al., 2017; Rosenkranz, et al., 2019; Temple, et al., 2017)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Nicotine<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_170\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-170\" style=\"width: 387px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img class=\"wp-image-170\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-300x175.jpg\" alt=\"&quot;Nicotine label&quot; by Alachua County is marked with Public Domain Mark 1.0.\" width=\"387\" height=\"226\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-300x175.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-768x449.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-65x38.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-225x132.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine-350x205.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/nictotine.jpg 1024w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-170\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/66143513@N03\/48899251437\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Nicotine label<\/a>&#8221; by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/66143513@N03\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Alachua County<\/a> is marked with <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/?ref=openverse\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Public Domain Mark 1.0<\/a>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Nicotine is another plant-based stimulant that is mostly derived from tobacco plants (APA, 2022). Like caffeine, it is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs; it is the leading cause of preventable death and disease worldwide. Nicotine, found when smoking or chewing tobacco, releases a shot of <button class=\"glossary-term\" aria-describedby=\"24-166\">glucose<\/button> into the system which thereby increases blood pressure, respiration, heart rate, and can lead to addiction (IUPHAR\/BPS, 2022). Users are often more alert, feel more calm during stressful situations, and can also act as an appetite suppressant. However, in large doses, nicotine is toxic and can eventually result in death. Some negative effects of nicotine usages include dizziness, diarrha, vomiting, spasms, and heart attact. (Mahajan, et al., 2021; Quach, et al., 2020)<\/p>\n<p>Tobacco smoke is also deadly. Exposure to tobacco smoke, even from electronic cigarettes, can increase the risk for stroke, Alzheimer&#8217;s disease, schizophrenia, and other diseases. Even just the tiniest bit of smoke contained thousands of hazardous chemicals and is an addictive substance (Sharma, et al., 2022).<\/p>\n<p>Withdrawal from nicotine can include the following symptoms, read more here about the symptoms and how to manage them: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">7 Common Withdrawal Symptoms<\/a> (CDC)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Having the urge to smoke<\/li>\n<li>Irritable or crabby<\/li>\n<li>Feeling restless and excitable<\/li>\n<li>Lack of focus<\/li>\n<li>Difficulty sleeping<\/li>\n<li>Increase in appetite (and weight)<\/li>\n<li>Increased feelings of anxiety, sadness, or depression<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"h5p-50\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-50\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"50\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"cigarettes and vaping\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_173\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-173\" style=\"width: 539px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img class=\"wp-image-173\" src=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-300x252.png\" alt=\"Supplement facts\" width=\"539\" height=\"453\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-300x252.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-1024x860.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-768x645.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-65x55.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-225x189.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578-350x294.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2022\/06\/Sandbox-e1657803141578.png 1080w\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-173\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Proprietary Blend: Elation, Euphoria, Pleasure, Social Relationships Impaired, Impaired Cognition, Elevated Blood Pressure, Increased Respiration, Increased Body Temperature, Heart and Respiratory Failure, Hemorrhaging, Seizures\/Convulsions, Stroke, Brain Damage<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<hr \/>\n<h2>References:<\/h2>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Agoston, C., Urban, R., Horvath, Z., van den Brink, W. &amp; Demetrovics, Z. (2022). Self-medication of ADHD symptoms: Does caffeine have a role? <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 13(8). <a href=\"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.813545<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">AlAteeq, D., Alotaibi, R., Saqer, R., Alharbi, N., Alotaibi, M., Musllet, R., &amp; Alraqibah, R. (2021). Caffeine consumption, intoxication, and stress among female university students: a cross-sectional study. <em>Middle East Current Psychiatry, 28<\/em>(30). <a href=\"https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5\">https:\/\/mecp.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1186\/s43045-021-00109-5<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Agonist. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/agonist\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/agonist<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Amphetamines. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/amphetamines<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Caffeine. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/caffeine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Cocaine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/cocaine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Ephedra.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/ephedra\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/ephedra<\/a><\/p>\n<p>American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Half-life. <\/em>APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/half-life\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/half-life<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Khat.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/khat\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/khat<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">American Psychological Association (2022). <em>Nicotine.<\/em> APA Dictionary of Psychology. <a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/nicotine\">https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/nicotine<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Athukorala, I., Tilakaratne, W., Jayasinghe, R. (2021). Areca nut chewing: Initiation, addiction, and harmful effects emphasizing the barriers and importance of cessation. <em>Journal of Addiction.<\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jad\/2021\/9967097\/\"> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2021\/9967097<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Biondich, A. &amp; Joslin, J. (2016). Coca: The history and medical significance of an ancient Andean tradition. <em>Emergency Medicine International.<\/em> <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/4048764<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">&#8220;Caffeine&#8221; (2022, July 9). Wikipedia. Retrieved July 14, 2022 from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caffeine<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Center for Disease Control (2021). <em>7 common withdrawal symptoms. <\/em>CDC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html\">https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/tobacco\/campaign\/tips\/quit-smoking\/7-common-withdrawal-symptoms\/index.html<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cusack, P. (2020, May 14). Addiction of Caffeine and Sugar. <em>Open Access Journal of Addiction and Psychology, 3<\/em>(5). <a href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575\">DOI: 10.33552\/OAJAP.2020.03.000575<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">dePaula, J. &amp; Farah, A. (2019). 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Cocaine and caffeine effects on the conditioned place preference test: Concomitant changes on early genes within the mouse prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. <em>Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2017.00200\/full\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fnbeh.2017.00200<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Nguyen, A. (2018). <em>Agonists and antagonists. <\/em>UTS. Retrieved July 18, 2022, from <a href=\"https:\/\/lx.uts.edu.au\/pharmacology\/article\/agonists-and-antagonists\/\">https:\/\/lx.uts.edu.au\/pharmacology\/article\/agonists-and-antagonists\/<\/a><\/p>\n<p>OpenStax (2020). <em>How hormones work.<\/em> LibreTexts. 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Expanding the genetic architecture of nicotine dependence and its shared genetics with multiple traits. <em>Nature Communications, <\/em>11, 5562. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-020-19265-z#author-information\">https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/s41467-020-19265-z#author-information<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Rawson, R. (1999). TIP 33: Treatment for stimulant use disorders: Treatment improvement protocol (TIP) 33. <em>United States Department of Health and Human Services. <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/23\/2017\/06\/TIP-33.pdf\">https:\/\/textbooks.whatcom.edu\/marketing\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/23\/2017\/06\/TIP-33.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Reyes-Parada, M., Iturriaga-Vasquez, P., Cassels, B. (2020). 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The safety of ingested caffeine: A comprehensive review. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 8<\/em>(80). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080\/full\">doi: 10.3389\/fpsyt.2017.00080<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Thomas, S. (2022). <em>How long do drugs stay in your system? (Drug half-life and drug tests). <\/em>American Addiction Centers. <a href=\"https:\/\/americanaddictioncenters.org\/how-long-drugs-system#_edn1\">https:\/\/americanaddictioncenters.org\/how-long-drugs-system#_edn1<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Tran, M., Luong, Q., Minh, G., Dunne, M., &amp; Baker, P. (2021). Psychosocial interventions for amphetamine type stimulant use disorder: An overview of systematic reviews. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 10. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.512076\/full\">https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.512076\/full<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">United States Forest Service. (2022). Stimulants. USDA. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.fed.us\/wildflowers\/ethnobotany\/Mind_and_Spirit\/stimulants.shtml\">https:\/\/www.fs.fed.us\/wildflowers\/ethnobotany\/Mind_and_Spirit\/stimulants.shtml<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Vosburg, S., Robbins, R., Antshel, K., Faraone, S., &amp; Green, J. (2021). Characterizing pathways of non-oral prescription stimulant non-medical use among adults recruited from Reddit. <em>Frontiers in Psychology.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.631792\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.631792<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wisconsin Technical College System (n.d.). <em>Nursing pharmacology. <\/em>Pressbooks. <a href=\"https:\/\/wtcs.pressbooks.pub\/pharmacology\/chapter\/1-6-cns-stimulants\/\">https:\/\/wtcs.pressbooks.pub\/pharmacology\/chapter\/1-6-cns-stimulants\/<\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-137\" hidden><p>This is a substance that is swallowed and goes through the digestive system and enters the bloodstream when metabolized.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-141\" hidden><p>Substances enter the bloodstream directly through the use of a syringe and needle.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-135\" hidden><p> A drug or chemical agent that binds to a particular receptor and produces a desired effect. Typically these effects are similar to natural body processes.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-237\" hidden><p>the time necessary for the concentration in the blood of an administered drug to fall by 50%.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-155\" hidden><p>coupled with dopamine they control brain states, vigilance, action, and reward, learning, and memory processes.<\/p>\n<\/div><div class=\"glossary__tooltip\" id=\"24-166\" hidden><p>soluble sugar that provides energy to the body. Glucose is derived from carbohydrates.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":57,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":482,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24\/revisions\/482"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/24\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=24"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=24"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=24"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/psychologyofaddiction\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=24"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}