{"id":5,"date":"2023-05-08T23:00:10","date_gmt":"2023-05-08T23:00:10","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/leveragingdatavisualizationtocommunicateeffectively\/?p=5"},"modified":"2025-07-07T21:33:27","modified_gmt":"2025-07-07T21:33:27","slug":"communicate-results","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/leveragingdatavisualizationtocommunicateeffectively\/chapter\/communicate-results\/","title":{"raw":"Communicate Results","rendered":"Communicate Results"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n

Data saturation is everywhere. We\u2019ve often had the belief that more is better; however, that actually isn\u2019t true in the case of data. The rapid rise in our ability to collect data hasn\u2019t been matched by our ability to support, filter, and manage data. As an example, think about the first problem that people complain about when a city experiences great growth\u2014the roads are too crowded. The infrastructure can\u2019t keep up.<\/p>\r\n

\u2014Sarah Spivey, Forbes 2020 World\u2019s Most Influential Chief Marketing Officers<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n

\r\n

What Do You Think?<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

Michelle, the CEO of a midsize engineering company, was in another one of those meetings she had grown to dread in the three months she had been running the growing and in-demand firm. Dane, one of her brightest lead engineers, was supposed to be explaining a new product line to the management team. The line would be unveiled in the next few months. Appearing somewhat nervous, Dane had been allotted just 20 minutes on the official meeting agenda but had already spent 15 minutes discussing the project\u2019s background. Nearly every decision-maker in the room was already familiar with the need for the project and had been for some time. At 10 minutes in, Michelle, squirming a bit in her seat, knew he would never get to the crucial part that everyone desperately needed to hear. Specifically, the management team needed to understand the functions of the new product line. They also needed to understand the benefits for existing clients and how to market in an organization-wide, all-hands-on-deck capacity.<\/p>\r\n

Michelle, a successful executive who had come up through the sales side, had been handed the reins of the organization after the start-up founders decided to take a step back from the day-to-day operations. The founders, who were also engineers, had been impressed by the powerful way that Michelle had described her vision for the organization over a series of get-to-know-you meetings. Michelle was energetic and succinct and used visionary language that portrayed a vivid story of the company\u2019s future. She credited these abilities to her work experience sharing data with clients who appreciate efficiency and effective reporting. This day, Michelle had purposely given Dane, the best engineer on her team, a 20-minute slot. She had already summed up what she thought he needed to do effectively to bring the team up to speed.<\/p>\r\n

Dane struggled through the background information, unaware he was repeating information most decision-makers in the room already knew. The voluminous slide deck he prepared was full of data and excessive bullet points, and each page appeared identical to the next as he droned on and on to the room of important insiders. Michelle, who prided herself on understanding the details of company initiatives and products, found herself struggling to follow along. Her attention drifted off, and other audience members were noticing. She worried about moving Dane along in the presentation, fearing it might aggravate his nervousness and cause the meeting to go further adrift. She also noted that Dane\u2019s presentation was reflective of many such presentations that lost their focus in presenting important ideas, relevant data, or discernible takeaways for audiences. As Dane continued, Michelle wondered if there was something different her team could do to be more influential during these important moments.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.<\/p>\r\n

How does this case relate to your own experiences at work, home, or school? What do you think Dane could have done differently with his pitch? What outcomes or goals should Dane have kept in mind? Who is the audience in this case, and how do you think they felt? Why should Michelle be concerned about the communication of her team? Do you have any suggestions for her moving forward?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

Introduction<\/h1>\r\n

Michelle\u2019s quandary about the missed opportunities for better communication in her organization is not an isolated example. Her situation may have invoked some sympathy from your own experiences and feelings of frustration as you thought through a range of similar struggles. Those struggles may have included memories of a work meeting where communicators never got to the point or a class lecture that contained information that seemed indecipherable. It may have also included a close friend or loved one who aimlessly guided their half of a conversation to everywhere except a finish.<\/p>\r\n

The failure of presenters to share important information seems almost like a rite of passage in many leadership tenures and organizational cultures. Failure to reach an audience in these situations seems almost the rule instead of the exception. As a result, the need for a speaker to reach an audience is more important than ever, particularly when the goal of their message is to gain buy-in, to reach a decision, or for action to be taken on the part of the audience members.<\/p>\r\n

This text provides readers with tools to communicate their ideas and data clearly. Clarity is key to connecting audience members to important information. Throughout this text, you will see additional resources and learning objectives to guide the journey. While not everything can be learned in this text (applied practice is needed), the information will provide a solid foundation for readers to discover tools that work for them and that reach their intended audience. To that end, the following chapter unpacks essential communication models on which the following processes are based, accompanied by discussions surrounding audience analysis. This chapter then turns to the powerful use of persuasion and storytelling to deliver our messages.<\/p>\r\n

Chapter 1 addresses the following learning objectives.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

\r\n

Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

\r\n

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    \r\n \t
  1. LO 1: Identify communication models that predict connection and identification between speaker and audience.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. LO 2: Describe the various aspects of audience perception and of speaker and message, and conduct key analysis before creating or delivering a presentation.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. LO 3: Flex between direct and indirect persuasion models to deliver influential communication.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. LO 4: Listen critically to identify powerful narratives and use effective storytelling to frame meaningful messages.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nKey Terms:<\/em> channel, context, direct and indirect persuasion, environment, feedback, message, narratives, presentation software, sender, source, storytelling\r\n\r\nDownload Chapter 1 PowerPoint (20 MB).<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    1.1 Communication Models and Management of Information<\/h1>\r\n
    \r\n

    It is the responsibility of the sender to make sure the receiver understands the message.<\/p>\r\n

    \u2014Joseph D. Batten, leadership scholar<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n

    Considering the Complexity of Communication in a Busy Sender-Receiver World<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_670\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]\"A Source: Group of signs image generated by Google Gemini\u2014Public Domain<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

    Too often in our communication experiences, we find ourselves overwhelmed with information as we struggle to assign meaning to the plethora of messages we are receiving. As our opening case already displayed, these moments can incite a flurry of emotions and confusion. Those familiar with travel or navigation can appreciate the feeling of being in \u201cuncharted waters\u201d despite having a clear travel plan or destination.<\/p>\r\nIn such moments it is easy to miss important parts of the message necessary for understanding. Think through your personal experience in situations where others are sending you messages. You may spend a lot of time trying to determine the actual message you are receiving. You might also wonder about the messenger\u2014their motives and how you fit into the messenger\u2019s plans. Additionally, you may spend time thinking about a potential response and how others will process your response. Those moments may feel confusing, and we may find ourselves with more questions than answers . . . and a strong desire to put off any decision at all. Many audience members are reluctant to voice their confusion out of fear of embarrassment\u2014their own or the speaker\u2019s.\r\n

    The Communication Process as an Ongoing Play Between Sender and Receiver<\/h2>\r\n

    In situations like this, it\u2019s common to feel responsible for our failure to understand. However, it\u2019s essential to recognize that understanding is a joint responsibility between the messenger and the recipient. The way the message is conveyed plays a critical role. Assumptions about the recipient\u2019s knowledge, vocabulary and terminology, or bias can hinder effective communication. As authors, we view communication as a multifaceted and dynamic process that occurs between individuals within their environment and amid the context of their circumstances. Imagine communication as a complex theater performance\u2014a play unfolding between two people.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    The Communication Process: A Play by Mitchell and Deckard<\/h2>\r\n

    The play starts with a sender<\/strong>, a coequal actor in our play and otherwise known as an individual seeking to impart information to the receiver<\/strong>. The sender and receiver approach each other with their own unique culture, experiences (professional and personal), perceptions, biases, and knowledge. We can call those background considerations context<\/strong>. Both the sender and receiver may be aware of, indifferent to, or oblivious to the differences between themselves and others. Together, sender and receiver operate on a channel<\/strong> of communication that includes a plethora of tools that can be issued verbally or conveyed nonverbally through facial or body language, written word, or items they produce. As you can see, there are a great deal of factors present for every communicator as they convey their message<\/strong>, which ideally is the information they seek to impart to their coequal actor on this proverbial stage.<\/p>\r\n

    While we all enjoy a play with a happy ending, this acting is a bit more complex. It includes some other details that we must first decipher. First, returning to those concepts of verbal and nonverbal, we must consider the reactions that the sender and receiver give each other during this communication process. We call those reactions feedback<\/strong>, and it includes words, facial expressions, and body language expressed by either party while processing the message. Feedback can be abundantly clear or very subtle, with the potential for both characteristics to occur within seconds of each other during our communication play. We also must consider another concept, noise<\/strong>, as it becomes an important element of the communication process and is prominent in our play. Noise refers to anything in the context, channel, or message that delays, disrupts, distracts, or prevents the otherwise normal flow of communication. Noise can be caused by anything, whether we notice it or not.<\/p>\r\n

    By the way, the ongoing communication doesn\u2019t necessarily follow a script; it\u2019s an infinite play. Achieving success in this communication play can be hindered by many distractions. What is the audience noticing? Let\u2019s revise the concept of \u201cnoise\u201d within our play. Imagine the receiver of the message arriving at a 9 a.m. meeting after a difficult and distressing morning. Upon arriving at work, they are bombarded by four hot-button problems requiring immediate resolution. Simultaneously, their office mates and email inboxes demand attention. To add to the stress, they skipped breakfast due to a family matter that couldn\u2019t wait until after work. And guess what? That same urgent matter will likely require additional attention during their nonexistent lunch break. All these profound factors contribute to the noise that disrupts communication between sender and receiver in our play. Sometimes, the noise is barely discernible to the sender, or perhaps the sender faces similar challenges while trying to convey their message through the channel.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    Introducing the Credible Speaker and Ethos, Pathos, and Logos<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_510\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"165\"]\"Bust Note: Author Photograph[\/caption]\r\n

    The factors that make communication complex also highlight the need for practitioners to consider their messages for audience-centeredness, clarity, and organization. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scholar, encouraged a combination of ethos, pathos, and logos. He contended that the well-rounded speaker could reach audiences in highly effective ways via these three appeals. Ethos<\/strong> refers to the credible speaker\u2014their experiences and character as the reputation that audience members come to know and trust. Pathos<\/strong> considers the emotion a speaker conveys in their words and, more importantly, how those feelings are considered by audience members. Logos<\/strong> describes the logic or reasoning through evidence that a speaker utilizes to reach their audience. Logos can be the very structure of an argument, or it can consider the best types of evidence to use with a particular audience. Together, these three appeals act as strong pillars that support the speaker, their connection with the audience, and their argument.<\/p>\r\n

    \"\"Ethos, Pathos, and Logos.<\/strong> You can learn more about the use of ethos, pathos, and logos from this video produced by the Texas A&M Writing Center. Tamu Writing Center. (2020, Jun 12). Ethos, Pathos & Logos<\/em>. [Video]. YouTube.<\/p>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/aUpiy67_nt4[\/embed]\r\n\r\n\"\"Aristotle: A Complete Overview of His Life, Work, and Philosophy.<\/strong> Aristotle\u2019s life and work extend into a wide swath of learning and philosophy. This article by Viktoriya Sus for the Collector<\/em>, which produces daily articles on ancient history, philosophy, art, and artists by leading authors, explores this influential thinker. Sus, V. (2023, May 16). Aristotle: A Complete Overview of His Life, Work, and Philosophy. The Collector. https:\/\/www.thecollector.com\/aristotle-life-works-philosophy\/<\/span><\/a>\r\n

    \r\n

    1.1 Exercise 1: Identify Ethos, Pathos, and Logos in an Appeal<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

    \r\n

    Learning Objective #1\u2014Identify communication models that predict connection and identification between speaker and audience<\/p>\r\n

    \"\"Consider the last request you heard. Think back through the last 24 hours of your day and the last time someone asked you to consider something or do something of significance. What evidence of ethos, pathos, and logos did you hear in their appeal? Do you think the sender of the message intended their appeal to have those aspects? How do you think they specified their appeal to you as an audience member?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Communication Models That Decipher the Complex Communication Process<\/h2>\r\n

    If you sense that this text on data visualization and storytelling leans heavily toward audience focus, trust your senses. Effective communication, where sender and receiver manage to relay the desired message despite the distraction of noise, must start by considering the audience before creating the message. This consideration should occur even in the split seconds available in the bustle of life. That said, regarding communication, an audience-centered approach has not always been the case despite Aristotle\u2019s advice on ethos, pathos, and logos.<\/p>\r\n

    As communication models from the last century illustrate, we\u2019ve only recently begun to fully consider the complex interplay of sender and receiver. The Linear Model<\/strong>, offered by Sharron and Weaver (1949) relied solely on the messenger for analysis. Osgood and Schramm\u2019s Interactive Model<\/strong>, offered in 1950, considered the receiver of the message but did not fully capture the nuance of verbal and nonverbal communication in a busy model. Both the Linear and Interactive Models reflect times in society where speakers, rather than audience, had the most agency in communicating widely. The Transactional Model<\/strong>, introduced by Barnlund in 1970, recognized the subtlety of complex interactions where sender and receiver continuously decipher each other\u2019s language. It also accounts for the constant presence of nonverbals including facial expressions and body language within the context, field of experiences, and relational dimensions present in the sender and receiver exchange. Table 1.1 provides a summary of these models.<\/p>\r\n

    Table 1.1:<\/span> The Evolution of Communication Models in the Last Century<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
    \r\n

    Model<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Description<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Characteristics<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n

    \r\n

    Linear Model (1949)<\/p>\r\n

    (Shannon and Weaver)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    The sender is central; communication flows one way from sender to receiver. Model heads one way, regardless of audience, audience perception, or audience reaction.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Sender-centric<\/p>\r\n

    One-way flow<\/p>\r\n

    Simplicity<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

    \r\n

    Interactive Model (1954)<\/p>\r\n

    (Osgood and Schramm)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Acknowledges the receiver but lacks depth in understanding verbal and nonverbal cues. Communication is almost like synchronized, sequential dance moves with one participant being studied at a time.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Sender and receiver interaction<\/p>\r\n

    Verbal and nonverbal nuances<\/p>\r\n

    Busy model<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

    \r\n

    Transactional Model (1970)<\/p>\r\n

    (Barnlund)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Recognizes dynamic interplay between sender and receiver. This model allows for a complete and nearly infinite process where sender and receiver of communication continuously evaluate verbal and nonverbals of each other.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

    		\r\n

    Mutual influence<\/p>\r\n

    Continuous deciphering<\/p>\r\n

    Nonverbals matter (facial expressions, body language, context)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

    \"\"Explore the Transactional Model on your own through the link found in the following resource. Communication coach Alexander Lyon shares a good introduction to better understand the communication process and learn more about the Transactional Model. As you consider the video, think about the relational dimensions and fields of experience in your regular communication at home, school, or work. Lyon, A. (2017, Sep 4). Transactional Model of Communication<\/em>. Communication Coach. [Video]. YouTube.<\/p>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/6d7w5CRnf7k[\/embed]\r\n

    \"\"Step-by-Step Instructions for Considering the Transactional Model of Communication<\/h2>\r\n

    Keep the following in mind while receiving messages to ensure you capture all the information being communicated intentionally and unintentionally:<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
    1. Observe:<\/strong> Note how the sender enters the conversation. What was their body language before communicating? What nonverbals were displayed during their message, after they were done, and while you were responding? Be aware of the context, field of experiences, and relational dimensions present in this channel.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Listen:<\/strong> What is the person saying? How are they saying it? What do they intend for you to hear?<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Confirm:<\/strong> As needed, confirm the message you believe you are receiving to get greater clarification and, in some cases, to validate what they are telling you. Remember: Your own nonverbals such as nodding and looking intently show signs of interest.<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. Note:<\/strong> Is there information they are not sharing? Do you need further information before responding? Before asking, it may be good to ask if they are open to your questions.<\/li>\r\n \t
    5. Respond:<\/strong> Once satisfied with your understanding of what they are saying and after gaining additional information, if necessary, is it important to respond immediately? While responding, observe nonverbals and listen for affirmation or questions they may have for you.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

      Please note this process may happen quickly, interchangeably, and with several layers of sender and receiver feedback.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

      Before turning away from the transactional communication model, it is important to note that all communication, including the complex deciphering of the sender and receiver process, can be overwhelming and not perfect. All communicators need to give themselves permission to unpack these experiences through trial-and-error learning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      Exploring Cognitive Overload and the Buffet Effect<\/h2>\r\n

      Christoper Schimming at the Mayo Clinic (2022) formally identifies \u201cnoise\u201d as information overload. They indicate the phenomenon, which they call cognitive overload<\/strong>, occurs when the brain has too much information to process. Cognitive overload can be overwhelming to the individual experiencing the phenomenon. It can also lead to a point of paralysis where the receiver chooses not to do anything, incapable of deciphering or acting upon the information received. The situation is compounded if the person is relied upon to make a judgment based on the information. It is easy for both parties to become frustrated. This condition is exacerbated by constant sources of data and information through television or streaming shows, movies, social media, and the internet, to name a few. As teachers, your authors have even noticed that our lectures and exercises compete with iPhone text messages and emails. It\u2019s important to fully understand the symptomatic reactions to cognitive overload and their effects as detailed in Table 1.2.<\/p>\r\n

      Table 1.2:<\/span> Reactions to Cognitive Overload With Explanations<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
      \r\n

      Reactions to Cognitive Overload<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

      		\r\n

      Reaction Explained<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n

      \r\n

      Paralysis<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

      		\r\n

      You are unable to deal with the topic or information because it appears more complex than manageable.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

      \r\n

      Anger<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

      		\r\n

      If information is not consistent with what you know or feel, you may get angry as your beliefs, knowledge, or experiences get challenged. Repeated efforts to address an issue with this information may make it worse.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

      \r\n

      Passivity<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

      		\r\n

      You decide to go along because forming an opinion on the topic may be too overwhelming.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

      \r\n

      Understanding<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

      		\r\n

      You may process information by relying on the knowledge or input of others who are more trusted. You may also rely on your trusted ways of learning to slowly gain the knowledge you need to arrive at an opinion or a decision.<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_511\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"A Source: Veggie Buffet<\/a> by takoradee<\/a>\u2014CC BY-SA<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

      Finally, when considering cognitive overload, we should also consider that many senders have arrived equipped with information-heavy messages filled with data, graphs, and exuberant amounts of PowerPoint slides due to what we call the Buffet Effect<\/strong>. If you have ever enjoyed the plentiful choices of an elaborate buffet, you know that at the onset, the choices seem irresistible and delicious. However, those of us who decided to try many (or even all those choices) know it is impossible to do so without feeling the aftereffects of our choices. In such a moment, the food once considered for its nutrition and sustenance has instead become something that causes indigestion, sleepiness, or lethargy. Simply put, we don\u2019t need all those buffet choices. Instead, we need food items that will give us the requisite calories, energy, and ability to conquer our day.<\/p>\r\nApplying the Buffet Effect to communication, senders preparing their messages may have adopted a similar approach as the restaurant owners hosting a lavish buffet, although with less appeal for the receivers. Instead of making strategic choices about evidence to support their claims, senders may have decided to add a bit of everything to their argument. They may include elements of excessive background along with undecipherable and endless graphs and statistics. If given 15 minutes to talk, they may have used every minute and still not gotten their information across. We can easily see how the Buffet Effect, reinforced by access to information, can lead to cognitive overload.\r\n

      \r\n

      1.1 Exercise 2: Monitoring the Buffet Effect in Communication Experiences<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

      \r\n

      Learning Objective #2\u2014Describe the various aspects of audience perception and of speaker and message, and conduct key analysis before creating or delivering a presentation<\/p>\r\n

      \"\"Consider a time when the Buffet Effect happened in your own communication experience. You can consider this cognitive overload from the point of the sender or receiver. How did you feel during this experience? Was this feeling the sender\u2019s intention?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      The Use of Figurative Language<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_512\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"148\"]\"White Source: Forward Arrow Road Sign<\/a> by George Hodan\u2014Public Domain<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

      You\u2019ve probably noticed we use figurative language<\/em> in this text. As two teachers authoring a text on data visualization and storytelling, this was intentional. A term like Buffet Effect, a metaphor for how cognitive overload can affect messages, is an example of figurative language. As communicators and teachers, we see this as a valuable resource. Beyond metaphor, we can include simile, personification, and hyperbole as powerful language tools.<\/p>\r\n

      \"\"To learn more about how to power up your audience-centered language, check out DifferenceBetween.com, where expert authors tackle a variety of subjects.Sethmini. (2021, June 18). Difference Between Simile Metaphor Personification and Hyperbole. https:\/\/www.differencebetween.com\/difference-between-simile-metaphor-personification-and-hyperbole\/<\/a>\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n

      Before turning away from the Buffet Effect, it\u2019s important to note that practices that offer too much information can be the exception instead of the rule. In this text, we will talk about different types of evidence, tools, tips, and best practices to effectively reach your audience. The remainder of this chapter will explore strong persuasive tips and storytelling to frame the reasoning behind the message. Before doing that, however, let\u2019s turn next to audience analysis.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n

      1.1 Self-Assessment: Buffet Effect<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

      \r\n

      Learning Objective #1\u2014Identify communication models that predict connection and identification between speaker and audience<\/p>\r\n

      \"\"Look at your calendar for the last three days. Make a list of all the meetings you had and think about the communication in those meetings. Particularly consider the appeals and requests from senders and receivers. Place an \u00d7\u00a0<\/strong>next to those meetings where the cognitive overload or Buffet Effect was evident. If the Buffet Effect was not present, place a +<\/strong> next to the meeting. Then for each \u00d7<\/strong>\u00a0and +<\/strong> meeting, describe the following information.<\/p>\r\n

      For \u00d7<\/strong>\u00a0meetings, what went wrong? What did you not understand? What should the sender have done differently?<\/p>\r\n

      For +<\/strong> meetings, what went well? What was the sender asking of you? What did the sender do to be so effective?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      1.2 Exploring and Unpacking Audience Perceptions<\/h1>\r\n
      \r\n

      It all starts with being curious and humble: putting yourself in the shoes of your audience.<\/p>\r\n

      \u2014Samara Johansson, strategic marketing specialist<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n

      Managing Fear Among Unknown Audience Members<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_513\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"A Source: Batsheva theater crowd in Tel Aviv<\/a> by David Shankbone\u2014CC BY-SA<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

      In this section we explore the audience and how to gain information about them. The audience can often be the most fearful aspect of our communication experience. After all, most of the appeals we make as senders involve leaving the decision-making strictly in their hands. While most of us have a fear of the unknown, we often have a greater fear of how an audience will react to anything we are offering. We might ask: Will they like me? Am I dressed appropriately? What do they know about the subject I am discussing? Will they accept the information I provide? Will someone ask a hard question? Of course, it is perfectly human for every communicator to face dwindling confidence levels and feel a tinge of panic by simply considering these questions.<\/p>\r\n

      This fear of public speaking may include fear of being seen as nervous, anxiety about panic setting in, toxic perfectionism, and terror at the thought of going forth on your own. It could also include defensive thinking and behavior, detachment from thoughts and feelings, and even rationalizing a career or class change to justify not speaking in public (SocialAnxiety.com, 2021).<\/p>\r\n

      Fear of public speaking can happen to anyone when not managed. A notorious incident took place when Michael Bay, a successful movie producer and director, left the stage at a Samsung product rollout after a teleprompter failed. You can watch the video and consider what went wrong, how you might have reacted in that same situation, and obvious details that Michael missed in the flurry of the moment. How could this difficult experience have been different?<\/p>\r\n

      \"\"CNET. (2014, Jan. 6). Michael Bay quits Samsung\u2019s press conference<\/em>. [Video]. YouTube.<\/p>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=R4rMy1iA268[\/embed]\r\n

      Regaining Confidence Through an Affirming Set of Guides<\/h2>\r\n

      Many individuals walk into communication experiences with a variety of baggage. After years of working with students who were struggling with confidence, we came up with four recommendations to help communicators. Many of those students were overwhelmed by anxiety, which never permitted them to consider their audiences. We hope this confidence-affirming guide as shown in Figure 1.1 helps you too as you prepare for audience analysis.<\/p>\r\n

      Figure 1.1<\/span>\u2014Every Communicator\u2019s Guide to Better Confidence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_193\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"432\"]\"Every Note: Author Illustration (2024)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\"\"To get practice speaking in front of others, consider visiting a Toastmasters International Club. Toastmasters is an organization that helps individuals develop communication skills and overcome public speaking anxiety through a variety of tools and techniques in a safe learning environment. To find a club, visit https:\/\/www.toastmasters.org\/Find-a-Club\/<\/a>.\r\n

      \"\"Step-by-Step Instructions to Take Inventory of Your Assets<\/h2>\r\n

      A healthy way to see the tremendous gifts you bring to any organization or moment is to look exhaustively at the various things you\u2019ve accomplished. Use this exercise to develop those skills by which you can teach others and share with audiences.<\/p>\r\n

      List 3 examples of experiences you have in the following categories:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n

        \r\n \t
      1. Work (professional):<\/strong> Just as it sounds. What work activities bring you to this moment?<\/li>\r\n \t
      2. Work (formative):<\/strong> These jobs may not be your current professional trajectory, but they made you who you are as you were developing into the professional you\u2019ve become.<\/li>\r\n \t
      3. Education:<\/strong> Which key learning experiences played a role in your development?<\/li>\r\n \t
      4. Home internship:<\/strong> Think through the roles in the family business, chores, duties, or other activities.<\/li>\r\n \t
      5. Training:<\/strong> Beyond education or experience, did you have specific training that equipped you for what you presently do?<\/li>\r\n \t
      6. The good:<\/strong> Think about the other things that have happened to you, personally or professionally, that were positive.<\/li>\r\n \t
      7. The bad (and ugly):<\/strong> These were negative at the time, but they are now part of your story, and you learned from them.<\/li>\r\n \t
      8. I can . . . !<\/strong> It could be a hobby, trait, skill, or interest you have that is awesome. When you do it, you do it well.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

        Beyond Fear: Learning About Different Types of Audience Members<\/h2>\r\n

        Let\u2019s explore some special considerations regarding audience types. We all walk into a situation with life experiences that guide us, inform our cultural experiences and judgments, and assist us as we meet new people and make sense of those meetings. Rhetorical scholar Kenneth Burke termed such moments and judgments, particularly as they engage our persuasive processes, as identification<\/strong>. Identification is the way that communicators relate with each other based on background, differences, tone, speaking styles, and so on. While this identification might sound like individuals will only relate to those who have similar experiences, this is just a starting point. As we meet more people and learn of their differences, our identification bubble expands through common ground.<\/p>\r\n

        \"\"Unpacking Kenneth Burke\u2019s theory on identification can take some time, but this resource can help. The process also requires self-awareness of our own characteristics and identities. Once we become more aware, we can find common ground with our audiences and will be in better shape as communicators.Writing with Andrew. (2021, Oct 4). Finding <\/em>Common Ground With Identification<\/em> | Kenneth Burke\u2019s Rhetoric of Motives. [Video]. YouTube.<\/p>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zdbaV2MVhBM[\/embed]\r\n

        A key part of that identification process is recognizing the differences inherent in all audiences. Specifically, we must consider the audience\u2019s demographic and psychographic aspects. According to Land et al. (2020), demographics<\/strong> consist of the characteristics of a population. Psychographics<\/strong> consist of a buyer\u2019s habits, hobbies, spending habits, and values. Both demographics and psychographics are key to our preparation and can be predictive of an audience member\u2019s openness to our message. That said, it is imperative to remember that audiences vary despite common characteristics. Approaching all groups as if they are the same can lead to unfair biases that may be off-putting to audience members. While keeping in mind demographics, psychographics, and maintaining flexibility in our approaches, let\u2019s list key aspects of each, as shown in Table 1.3.<\/p>\r\n

        Table 1.3:<\/span> Demographic and Psychographic Aspects<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
        \r\n

        Demographics<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        Psychographics<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Age<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Values and Beliefs<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Gender<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Attitudes<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Economic Background<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Political Affiliation<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Ethnicity<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Interests<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Location<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Personality Traits<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n

        \r\n

        \u2713Education<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n

        		\r\n

        \u2713Lifestyle<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n\"\"Learn more about demographics and psychographics in this quick video. As you listen to John Fallon, note how diverse and expansive your audiences can be while considering these aspects.Fallon, J. (2012, Aug 3). Audience Demographics and Psychographics. [Video]. YouTube.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=y9vec4YrAqg[\/embed]\r\n

        \r\n

        1.2 Exercise 1: Explore Demographics and Psychographics of Audience Members<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

        \r\n

        Learning Objective #2\u2014Describe the various aspects of audience perception, of speaker and message, and conduct key analysis before creating or delivering a presentation<\/p>\r\n

        \"\"Consider the list of demographics and psychographics.<\/strong> What are some of the ways that communicators reach you via these important and powerful categories? What are things they ignore? Document both and draft out the following alongside each identified demographic and psychographic miss: What opportunities were lost, what appeal could have been added, and what are the repercussions of the miss?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

        Diversity and Bias<\/h2>\r\n

        As you may be starting to understand via this chapter and through your own experiences, audiences are all different, and in any consideration, this is a wonderful thing. As a popular colleague of ours often says, \u201cdifferent\u201d does not mean deficient\u2014it just means different. Recognizing diversity<\/strong>, otherwise known as our differences among various demographic and psychographic traits, can be powerful for communicators. Even more impactful is when we assemble and recognize diverse teams or unite them through the communication we offer. In fact, Forbes (2021) indicated that simply boosting diversity in our workplaces can increase creativity and innovation, create greater organizational opportunities for professionals, and lead to better overall decision-making.<\/p>\r\n

        We also must recognize the bias that influences our perspectives, practices, and resulting modes of communication. Bias<\/strong> is a prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared to another, usually in a way that can impair or eliminate fairness. For instance, as midwestern university authors working at global institutions, we are likely to have differing perceptions from the global gathering of students and faculty we regularly meet. This can include our concept of time, customs such as greetings, or how we build trust.<\/p>\r\n

        The important first step in confronting bias is recognizing that we all have certain predilections that favor certain cultural experiences. If that bias remains unchecked, it can be detrimental to how we connect and communicate with others. In Chapter 8, we will explore to a greater extent how we communicate across gaps to reach diverse audiences, including those of different genders, cultures, and generational demographics.<\/p>\r\n

        In the meantime, keep reflecting on the fact that bias is real, and account for it. Often the term bias<\/em> raises concerns for individuals. That said, by considering how bias (e.g., our natural experiences or cultural backgrounds) may influence our communication, we prepare for healthy audience interactions.<\/p>\r\n\"\"In this section we discussed bias that can account for an individual\u2019s perception, but there is also research bias. The University of Wisconsin\u2013Green Bay Libraries produced a great online resource to get you thinking about research bias. Check it out and see why bias is such a problem in our communication and research, as it undermines our arguments, research, and work when left unchecked. University of Wisconsin\u2013Green Bay Libraries\u2014Research Guides. (2024, Jan 16). Identifying Bias. https:\/\/library.uwgb.edu\/bias\r\n

        Conducting Audience Analysis Toward Successful Communication<\/h2>\r\n

        Now that we have accounted for bias while considering the demographics and psychographics of diverse audiences, let\u2019s determine how to move forward with our messages. Peter Cardon (2021), an expert on effective business communication, wrote about key components for audience analysis. First, as communicators looking to have influence, we should identify any benefits<\/strong> our message contains for audience members. Similarly, we also must recognize any constraints<\/strong> posed by our communication within the existing system structure. The term system structure<\/strong> refers to the overall organization and interconnections within a communication system. It includes how different components interact and influence the flow of information. A good example of a constraint is the limitation on the number of characters when writing a tweet.<\/p>\r\n

        Next, what are the recipients\u2019 values<\/strong> and priorities<\/strong>? These key determiners help us fiercely home in on our audience. After values and priorities are analyzed, we should review our own credibility<\/strong> on the subject. Remember, we often undersell our abilities, experience, and knowledge in this area, and this can be a core mistake of an otherwise strong message. We should also estimate and anticipate audience reactions<\/strong> to our message. Remember that communication is an imprecise tool; however, anticipating a response that has not yet been received can lead to a better understanding of your audience. Finally, we should simultaneously keep secondary audiences<\/strong> in mind as we prepare our message. Secondary audiences may not be the front line for our message, but they certainly factor into how decisions are made at multiple levels.<\/p>\r\n

        Now that you know the initial planning steps for your message, how often have you used audience analysis in your current strategy? It is common for many communicators to do one or more of these steps. It is also common that many otherwise highly skilled and talented individuals do none. How do you think their communication improves by performing this analysis?<\/p>\r\n\"\"Custom-tailoring your public speaking.<\/strong> Communication coach Alexander Lyon discusses tips for prioritizing the audience and why.Lyon, A. (2022, Feb 14). How to Analyze an Audience for Public Speaking. Communication Coach Alexander Lyon<\/em>. [Video]. YouTube.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=hYLo4xcBy6c[\/embed]\r\n

        Beyond the audience analysis, there are specific steps to ensure our message resonates with our audience. Rather than relying on guesswork, we can directly investigate opinions. Consider any one or more of the steps in Exhibit 1.1 for potential audience analysis tools.<\/p>\r\n

        Exhibit 1.1\u2014Potential Tools for Audience Analysis<\/strong><\/p>\r\n

        \u2713What information is readily available? Find out via<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n