{"id":45,"date":"2022-03-15T13:55:07","date_gmt":"2022-03-15T13:55:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/elementsofbiblicalpoetry\/?post_type=chapter&p=45"},"modified":"2022-08-16T15:18:13","modified_gmt":"2022-08-16T15:18:13","slug":"5parallel-lines","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palni.org\/elementsofbiblicalpoetry\/chapter\/5parallel-lines\/","title":{"raw":"5. Parallel Lines: Similarity and Sequence","rendered":"5. Parallel Lines: Similarity and Sequence"},"content":{"raw":"Robert Lowth focused on the similarities between lines. He saw Hebrew poetry as a repetition of similarity: the second line repeats the ideas of the first line in some way, or at least its length. Word pairs serve as the building blocks of this parallelism.\r\n\r\nJames Kugel has emphasized the importance of sequence. As Kugel argues: \u201cThere is A, and what\u2019s more there is B.\u201d The second does not merely repeat the first in some way, but it moves the thought forward.\r\n\r\nSimilarity and sequence, taken together, capture the fundamental movement of biblical poetry. Sometimes the emphasis falls more on similarity and at other times on sequence. While it is impossible and unnecessary to describe every possibility, this section outlines some basic relationships of similarity and sequence in parallel lines to help readers imagine the possibilities. By recognizing these relationships, we can follow how the psalmist shapes and develops the couplet, the stanza, and the whole poem. Some couplets have a complexity that allows them to fit into several categories. Any zeal to categorize these couplets should focus rather on better insight into the whole psalm and not on the \u201ccorrect\u201d answer.\r\n\r\nScholars often indicate the similarity between lines by assigning each element a letter. For example, \u201cabc || abc\u201d indicates that each line has three elements, and all three have a similar word pair. On the other hand, \u201cabc || bc\u201d indicates that the second line is parallel to the second and third elements of the line.\r\n

<\/a>5.1. Similar Parallelism<\/h1>\r\nSimilar parallelism may be found at all four of Berlin\u2019s levels: sound, grammar, word, and idea. However, I shall focus on the word pairs.\r\n

<\/a>a. similar ideas without parallel word pairs<\/h2>\r\n

Let your face shine upon your servant;\r\nsave me in your steadfast love. (Ps 31:16)<\/p>\r\nHere the ideas are similar even though expressed in different ways. Berlin calls this \u201csemantic parallelism.\u201d Kugel would surely argue that the second line brings something new and important. He might point to \u201csteadfast love\u201d and its connection to covenant.\r\n

<\/a>b. full similarity of ideas, words, and even grammar: abc || abc<\/h2>\r\nHere each element of the first line is paired with an element of the second, as in Ps 149:2 where the grammar is also parallel:\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
<\/td>\r\na<\/td>\r\nb<\/td>\r\nc<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nsubject<\/td>\r\nverb<\/td>\r\nobject<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
abc<\/td>\r\nLet Israel<\/td>\r\nbe glad<\/td>\r\nin its Maker;<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
abc<\/td>\r\nlet the children of Zion<\/td>\r\nrejoice<\/td>\r\nin their King.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

<\/a>c. elliptical parallelism: abc || bc or a variation<\/h2>\r\nEllipsis refers to an omitted word or phrase from a previous line that a reader must supply to make sense of the second line. Ps 96:13 omits \u201che will judge\u201d in the second line.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
<\/td>\r\na<\/td>\r\nb<\/td>\r\n\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/strong>c<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
abc<\/td>\r\nHe will judge<\/td>\r\nthe world<\/td>\r\nwith righteousness,<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
bc<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nand the peoples<\/td>\r\nwith his truth.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe standard meter,\u00a0 3+2,, is visible in this verse.\r\n\r\nEllipsis produces conciseness that contributes to density\u2014a value for poets.\r\n

<\/a>d. parallelism with substitution: abc || bcd and the like<\/h2>\r\nAmos 1:2 omits \u201cthe LORD<\/span>\u201d and replaces it in the second line with a new element: \u201chis voice.\u201d\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
<\/td>\r\na<\/td>\r\nb<\/td>\r\nc<\/td>\r\nd<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
abd<\/td>\r\nThe LORD<\/span><\/td>\r\nroars<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nfrom Zion,<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
bcd<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nand utters<\/td>\r\nhis voice<\/td>\r\nfrom Jerusalem<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

<\/a>e. apposition: abc || a or abc || b or abc || c<\/h2>\r\nApposition describes a noun followed by an explanatory noun or phrase. Here it refers to the use of the second line to explain one element in the first line. Isaiah 63:15 expands on \u201cheaven\u201d in the second line.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
\u00a0abc<\/td>\r\nLook down | from heaven<\/span><\/span> | and see,<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
b<\/td>\r\nfrom your holy and glorious habitation<\/span><\/span>.<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nIn Ps 125:1, the second line describes \u201cMount Zion\u201d with contrasting verbs.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
abc<\/td>\r\nThose who trust | in the LORD<\/span> | are like Mount Zion<\/span>,<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
cc<\/td>\r\n\u00a0which cannot be moved<\/span>, | but abides forever<\/span>.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nIn Isa 28:15, the second line describes \u201cyou scoffers\u201d in the first.\r\n

Therefore hear the word of the LORD<\/span>, you scoffers<\/span>\r\nwho rule this people in Jerusalem.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>f. repetition of one or more element(s): ab || ac or the like<\/h2>\r\nThe second line repeats one or more of the elements from the first line while adding new elements as in Ps 93:3-4:\r\n

abc\u00a0 \u00a0The floods have lifted up<\/span>, O LORD<\/span>,\r\nabd\u00a0 \u00a0the floods have lifted up<\/span> their voice;\r\nabd\u2019 \u00a0the floods lift up<\/span> their roaring.<\/p>\r\n

efg\u00a0 \u00a0More majestic than<\/span> the thunders, of mighty waters,\r\nehf\u00a0 \u00a0more majestic than<\/span> the waves, of the sea,\r\neij\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0majestic<\/span> on high is the LORD<\/span>!<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>g. chiasm: ab || ba<\/h2>\r\nChiasm (pronounced: KAI-asm) takes its name from the Greek letter \u2018chi\u2019 or \u2018X\u2019 because the arrangement of the two lines looks like the letter \u201cX\u201d if you draw a line between the pairs, as in Ps 91:14.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
a<\/em>\u00a0 \u00a0Those who love me<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nb<\/em>\u00a0 I will deliver.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nX<\/i><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
b \u00a0\u00a0<\/em>I will protect<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\na\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em>those who know my name.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThis arrangement creates a strong sense of unity between the two lines.\r\n\r\nPs 33:6 also has a chiastic form but adds a middle term that serves both lines. .\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
a<\/em> \u00a0\u00a0By the word of the LORD<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nb\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em>the heavens<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
<\/td>\r\nc<\/em> \u00a0\u00a0were made<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
b \u00a0\u00a0<\/em>and all their host<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\na \u00a0\u00a0<\/em>by the breath of his mouth.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nChiasm appears often in Hebrew poetry. See other examples in Pss 50:11; 51:1; 82:1; 91:14. As with all poetic craft, its importance lies in its contribution to the whole, and we should be able to explain this and not just identify it.\r\n

<\/a>h. contrasting parallelism<\/h2>\r\nHere the two lines make the same point by stating some contrast. Ps 21:2 states what God has given to and has not withheld from the king.\r\n

positive<\/em>:\u00a0 \u00a0 You have given him his heart's desire,\r\nnegative<\/em>:\u00a0 \u00a0and have not withheld the request of his lips.<\/p>\r\nWisdom literature is forever contrasting the ways of the righteous and the wicked, as in Ps 37:21.\r\n

The wicked<\/strong> <\/span>borrow, and do not pay back,\r\nbut the righteous<\/strong><\/span> are generous and keep giving;<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>i. a group of <\/b>three-line: a tercet<\/h2>\r\nWhile the couplet is the basic unit of biblical poetry, three lines, called a tercet, are not uncommon. While full similar parallelism (aaa) is possible, the tercet often take the form of 2+1 or 1+2: aab or abb, as in Ps 90:7.\r\n

a\u00a0<\/em> A thousand may fall at your side,\r\na\u00a0<\/em> ten thousand at your right hand,\r\nb\u00a0<\/em> but it will not come near you.<\/p>\r\nThe doubling of \u2018a\u2019 makes the contrast of \u2018b\u2019 that much stronger. Likewise, the doubling of the second line (abb) brings a different emphasis. The relationships of these three-line units can be as complex as those for couplets.\r\n\r\nPs 86:9 gives us three verbs that describe a sequence of actions which we consider in the next section.\r\n

a<\/em>\u00a0 All the nations you have made shall come<\/span>\r\nb\u00a0<\/em> and bow down<\/span> before you, O LORD<\/span>,\r\nc\u00a0<\/em> and shall glorify<\/span> your name.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>5.2. Sequential Parallelism<\/h1>\r\nSequence refers to elements that typically follow one another. The sequential relationship may be circumstantial, such as time, place, cause, or result. As both Kugel and Alter argue, the sequence develops the thought, emotion, or action. As Kugel says:\r\n
What [Lowth\u2019s] synonymous reading\u2026lacked was a recognition of the fact of B\u2019s afterwardness. It conceived of the two as happening simultaneously and consequently failed to see that B must inevitably be understood as A\u2019s completion (13).<\/blockquote>\r\nWithout the ability to move the text forward, it can only repeat itself and quickly becomes trite.\r\n\r\nAn exhaustive treatment would be impossible and unnecessary because poets always seek new combinations. Below are some typical strategies used in biblical poetry.\r\n

<\/a>a. the second line grammatically completing the first<\/h2>\r\n

Our feet are standing\r\nwithin your gates, O Jerusalem. (Ps 126:2)<\/p>\r\nNothing in the first line is similar to anything in the second line, but it completes the idea of the first, as also in Ps 61:2.\r\n

From the end of the earth I call to you,\r\nwhen my heart is faint.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>b. lines of sequential actions<\/h2>\r\nPs 80:8-9 describes the sequence of events from Egypt to the promised land.\r\n

You brought<\/strong> a vine out<\/strong> of Egypt;\r\nyou drove out<\/strong> the nations and planted <\/strong>it.\r\nYou cleared<\/strong> the ground for it;\r\nit took deep root<\/strong> and filled<\/strong> the land.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>c. an independent clause and a subordinate clause or vice versa<\/h2>\r\nSubordinate clauses and phrases express place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition, or serve to introduce a substantive clause. The examples below have sequential verbs.\r\n

When the righteous cry for help, the LORD<\/span> hears,\r\nand rescues them from all their troubles. (Ps 34:17)<\/p>\r\n

If I had cherished iniquity in my heart,\r\nthe LORD<\/span> would not have listened. (Ps 66:18)<\/p>\r\n

Give victory with your right hand, and answer us,\r\nso that those whom you love may be rescued. (Ps 60:5)<\/p>\r\n

I have made you a tester and a refiner among my people\r\nso that you may know and test their ways. (Jer. 6:27)<\/p>\r\n

Blessed be God,\r\nbecause he has not rejected my prayer\r\nor removed his steadfast love from me. (Ps 66:20)<\/p>\r\n

How good it is to sing praises to our God;\r\nfor he is gracious, and a song of praise is fitting. (Ps 147:1)<\/p>\r\n

O sing to the LORD<\/span> a new song,\r\nfor he has done marvelous things. (Ps 98:1)<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>d. statement and quotation<\/h2>\r\nPs 87:5 begins with a statement followed by a quote.\r\n

And of Zion it will be said:\r\n\u201cEach one was born in it.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n

<\/a>e. statement and question<\/h2>\r\nA question may be joined to a statement as in Psalm 118:6:\r\n

The LORD<\/span> is with me; I am not afraid;\r\nwhat can mortals do against me?<\/p>\r\nThere are other types of sequential statements, but these examples convey the basic idea.\r\n

<\/a>5.3. The Combination of Similarity and Sequence<\/h1>\r\nThough the examples above have focused on either similarity or sequence, Kugel would argue that they combine both and so belong here. Again, similarity and sequence are not different categories, but two dimensions that combine to create emphasis and nuance while moving the thought forward. Our ability to recognize both provides us with insight into the movement and concerns of the text. Rather than focusing only on similarity, we must look for the difference between the two lines. The similarity allows us to see the difference more clearly.\r\n\r\nPsalm 20 opens with similar lines:\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
<\/td>\r\nThe LORD<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nanswer you<\/td>\r\nin the day<\/td>\r\nof trouble<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
The name<\/td>\r\nof the God<\/td>\r\nof Jacob<\/td>\r\nprotect you.<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe second line replaces \u201cin the day of trouble\u201d with \"the name\" and \"of Jacob\" to link God's presence to the people. The verbs also shift from \u201canswer, to \u201cprotect\u201d which is the answer to the prayer, and Kugel would insist that \"protection\" is the \"more\" added by the second line.\r\n\r\nBelow are three basic combinations, but the possibilities are endless. A fourth follows but can only be seen in Hebrew.\r\n

<\/a>a. the difference of similar words: abc || abc<\/h2>\r\nBecause similar words are also different, their differences can play a crucial role, as in Ps 1:1 which is clearer in the translation of the New American Bible (Revised Edition):\r\n

Blessed is the man\r\nwho does not walk<\/span> | in the counsel | of the wicked<\/strong><\/em>\r\nnor stand<\/span> | in the way | of sinners<\/strong><\/em>\r\nnor sit<\/span> | in the company | with scoffers<\/strong><\/em>.<\/p>\r\nThe verbs shift from movement to standing in place to rest: walk > stand > sit. Taken together they embrace key moments of life. The last three terms begin with a state of being (\u201cthe wicked\u201d) and move to active involvement (\u201csinning\u201d) and end in a state of disdain (\u201cscoffers\u201d). All refer to those who do not keep the Torah, but the differences are significant and add intensity. The three middle terms are not similar, but the parallelism invites us to connect them.\r\n

<\/a>b. substitution with a new element: abc || abd etc.<\/h2>\r\nOften the second line drops some element from the first and replaces it with a new element as in Ps 96:1 where the second line names those who are to sing.\r\n\r\nabc:\u00a0 \u00a0O sing to the LORD<\/span> a new song;\r\nabd:\u00a0 \u00a0sing to the LORD<\/span>, all the earth.\r\n

<\/a>c. step parallelism: ab || bc<\/h2>\r\nStep parallelism uses the last element to connect to the first element of the next line\u2014the repetition adding emphasis, as in Ps 97:5 \u2014 ab \u2016 bc\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
ab<\/td>\r\nThe mountains melt like wax<\/td>\r\nbefore the LORD<\/span>,<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
bc<\/td>\r\n<\/td>\r\nbefore the LORD<\/span><\/td>\r\nof all the earth.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

<\/a>d. Janus parallelism<\/h2>\r\nFor the sake of completeness, I include Janus parallelism, which English cannot reproduce. The Roman god Janus had a face in both the front and back of his head and so could look backward as well as forward. Janus parallelism uses a word with two different meanings: one relating to what has preceded it and the other meaning to what follows, as in this example, which appears in the Song of Songs 2:12:\r\n

The flowers appear on the earth;\r\nthe time of z\u0101m\u00eer<\/em><\/strong><\/span> has come,\r\nand the voice of the turtledove.<\/p>\r\nThe Hebrew word z\u0101m\u00eer<\/em> can mean either \u201cpruning\u201d or \u201csong,\u201d and in this context, it means \u201cpruning\u201d in relation to the first line and \u201csong\u201d in relation to the third line. Since Janus parallelism depends on the meaning of the Hebrew, it is lost in translation.\r\n

<\/a>5.4. Stanzas and Larger Groups<\/h1>\r\nAlthough the couplet is the basic unit of biblical poetry, the sense of the text often indicates that couplets belong together and so form larger units which we call stanzas in English.\r\n\r\nTraditionally, stanzas of English poetry are uniform in length, and the poets make these divisions clear in their manuscripts. However, Hebrew manuscripts do not preserve larger units. The word \"selah<\/em>\" appears mainly in the Book of Psalms (seventy-one times), and it seems to have served as a liturgical or musical marker. However, it is not used consistently.\r\n\r\nDivisions in translations today come from an editor, and various editors divide the same poem in different ways for good reasons. Any division that can be defended is viable. The New Revised Standard Version<\/em> divides Psalm 29 into six stanzas, and the New American Bible<\/em> (Revised Edition) divides it into three stanzas. Both of those translations tend to divide psalms into larger groups. The Grail Psalter, however, tends to divide psalms into groups of four, five, and six lines for singing. Even so, I find these smaller groups reasonable.\r\n\r\nPs 139:11-12 begins with an \u201cif\u201d clause (v. 11) followed by \u201cthen\u201d clauses (v. 12); light and darkness hold the five lines today with the last being the most important.\r\n

11<\/sup> If I say, \u201cSurely the darkness shall cover me,\r\nand the light around me become night,\u201d\r\n12<\/sup> even the darkness is not dark to you;\r\nthe night is as bright as the day,\r\nfor darkness is as light to you.<\/p>\r\nWith this, we come to the end of our consideration of poetic techniques which biblical poets used to craft their poems. These elements are not separate from poetic language and genre which we shall explore in the next two parts. Still repetition at various levels, word pairs, and parallelism provide the framework for this poetry.\r\n

<\/a>5.5. Exercises for Chapter 5<\/h2>\r\n

Vocabulary<\/h4>\r\n